


i^^l 



mil 



fr^s^w**' 








Qass T A ^^ 



ij- 



Book. 



^ 



4-^ 



I %n (o 



ENGINEER DEPARTMENT, IINH^D S]MHBS-ARMY. 
^^5-; 






THE ENGINEER DEPARTJff^^ 



U. S. ^RISIY, 



AT THE 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 18T6. 



OAPT. D. P. HEAP, OOEPS OP ETOINEEES, ' 

IN CHARGE OF THE 

ENGTMEEK SECTION OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT PARTICIPATION 
IN SAID EXHIBITION. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1884. 



>■ 



'V. 

^«1'' 



Transfer 

finslneers School L 
^une 29. s 



-. ■>■ 



iby. 



{EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF BYT. LIEUT. COL. S. C. LTFORD, ORDXANCE DE- 
PARTMEXT, r. S. ARMY, REPRESEXTATIYE OF THE WAR DEPARTMEXT AT THE 
INTERXATIOXAL EXHIBITIOX. 187G, AXD CHAIRMAX OF THE BOARD OX BEHALF 
OF r. .S-. EXECUTIYE DEPARTMEXTS AT THAT EXHIBITIOX; WITH THE IXD OR SE- 
ME XT OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR OX SAID REPORT] 



WAR DEPARTMENT PARTICIPATIOX. 



Office of Eepresentative of the War Department, 

Washington, D. C, January 2, 1877. 
The honorable the Secretary of War: 

Sir: * * * Theparticipationof the Executive Departments of the 
Government in the Exhibition had its orgin in the reference, in May, 
1873, by the Centennial committee on classification, of advance copies 
of their preliminary sketch of classitication of objects to various govern- 
mental officials in Washington for critical examination and suggestion. 
These advance copies were sent to the chiefs of the several bureaus of 
the War Department, who each made such remarks as were deemed ap- 
propriate in that connection. The Chief of Ordnance, General A. B. 
Dyer, was at the time confined to his bed by sickness, and his military 
assistant, Maj. S. V. Benet (now brigadier- general and Chief of Ord- 
nance), was absent on leave, leaving myself temporarily in charge of 
the Ordnance Office. With their approbation and concurrence a reply 
was forwarded suggesting a separate and distinct display to be made 
of the war materials of the nation. The substance of this reply met 
with the hearty concurrence of the Centennial authorities, who trans- 
mitted it, in the November following, to the President of the United 
States, with the replies received from the other bureaus, and strongly 
urged upon the President the propriety of making not only a display by 
the War Department, but a collective exhibition of all the Executive 
Departments. The proposition of the Centennial authorities received 
the warm approval of the Secretary of War, Hon. W. W. Belknap, to 
whom the matter was referred, and who subsequently accorded the 
utmost facilities of his Department for the undertaking. The proposi- 
tion being favorably considered in Cabinet, an Executive order was 
issued on January 23, 1874, directing the appointment of a Board on 
behalf of the several Departments and the Smithsonian Institution, to 
Ijrepare, arrange, and display the articles and materials pertaining to 
each. The Secretary of War did me the honor to appoint me to repre- 
sent the War Department in the Board, and the Presulent designated 
me as chairman. 



IV INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

The necessary appropriations for the realization of the plan having 
been made March 3, 1875, the working out of details was committed by 
the several members of the Board to subordinate officers selected from 
their respective Departments. In my own case, I left these details to 
the care of officers selected by the several chiefs of bureaus of the War 
Department, to be wrought out under the direction and control of these 
chiefs, believing, as I did, that b^^ this arrangement the substantial in- 
terests of each contributing bureau would be thereby best subserved, 
and the exhibition of the Department as a whole be rendered more 
complete and creditable. The wisdom of this plan has been amply at- 
tested by the results achieved. The interest of the War Department 
display was materially enchanced by the efficient services performed by 
the officers in charge of the several bureau collections, whose emulatiou, 

energy, and intelligence entitle them to special mention. 

******* 

The display by the Engineer Department was prepared under the di- 
rection of the Chief of Engineers by Capt. D. P. Heap, Corps of Engi- 
neers, who efficiently managed the affairs connected wath that depart- 
ment. He was assisted during a considerable period of the Exhibition 
by Lieuf. S. S. Leach, Corps of Engineers, w^ho is entitled to favorable 
mention. The report on civil engineering, prepared by Captain Heap, 
and the report on military engineering, prepared by Capt. James C. 
Post, Corps of Engineers, and also a report on cements, artificial stones 
&c., prepared by Lieut. Col. Q. A. Gillmore, Corps of Engineers, are 
appended, and will be found of much value in connection with engineer- 
ing subjects. 

* * * * * # * 

The several reports on professional subjects * * * evince with 
what diligence [their authors] must have labored, amidst the excite- 
ments and allurements of the occasion, to seek out and secure for the 
benefit of the public service the best fruits of the Exhibition in all things 

relating to their several special branches of service. 

******* 

It is seriously to be regretted that a more general display of war 
materials was not made by the great foreign military powers. The dis- 
play of our own Government stood x^re-eminent for its variety and com- 
pleteness, and the comparisons thereby afforded will, if properly under- 
stood, exeit a beneficial effect on the military spirit of our people, by 
inspiring a patriotic desire to retain in the van of national greatness the 
creditable position to which our benign institutions, our wealth, and our 
natural resources entitle us. The encouragement of this impulse is 
within the legitimate functions of Government, and such measures as 
may have the effect of generating and promoting this spirit should meet 
the hearty approval of all lo\'ers of their country. The beneficial effects 
to result from a comparison of onr war materials in other lands, where 
greater opportunities and facilities for more general and thorough com- 



WA R DEPA R TME.\ 'T FA R TIC IP A 1 'I OX. V 

parisous may reasouably be expected, leads me to recommend strougly 
to the attention of the authorities the advisability of directing that full 
representations of these materials be forwarded to the next International 
Exhibition, which takes place at Paris, France, in 1878, and that the 
necessary appropriation be asked therefor. 

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

S. C. LYFORD, 
Bvt. Lieut. Col, U. S. A., 
Representative of War Dept. at International Uxhibition, 1876. 



[Indorsement.] 

This interesting summary of the operations of the War Department 
representative at the Centennial Exhibition is, with its accompanying 
documents, respectfully^ referred to the Board on behalf of the Executive 
Departments, in anticipation that they will be presented to Congress 
for publication. 

Colonel Lyford's views as to the participation of the War Department 
at the Paris Exhibition in 1878 meet my hearty approval, and will be 
forwarded to the extent of my ability. 

J. D. CAMERON. 

Secretary of War. 

War Department, January 3, 1877. 



A ^ Oft 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. ^^ ^/ ^^ 

■ '^ir^t^ 

Page, -y^ 

Introduction Ill 

History of the Corps of Engineers :293 

Catalogue of Engineer Section '295 

I.-CIVIL EIN^&IIN'EBRIIS^G-. 

ENGINEERING WORKS, 

Austria : 

New port of commerce at Trieste , 372 

France : 

Navigation of the river Yonne 379 

Navigation of the river Seine 381 

Shutter weirs on the upper Seine 381 

Port it I'anglais barrage 382 

Barrage of L'lle BruMe 383 

Barrages on the Marne 384 

Trestle barrage at Martot 386 

Coffer-dam at Brest 38b 

Improvement of the Seine, Eouen to Havre 3c9 

Lights and beacons 392 

Light-house of Ar-men 392 

Light-house of the Eoche Douvres 397 

Light-house of St. Pierre de Royan 399 

Light-house of La Palmyra 401 

Turret and candelabrum for port lights 403 

Dam and siphon weir at Mittersheim 405 

Saint Louis Canal 408 

Lock-gates of Saint Nazaire 412 

Lock-gates of Penhouet 413 

Lock of the port of Dunkerque 414 

Geological map 416 

Suez Canal 418 

Italy: 

Plan for the amelioration of the Tiber . . 421 

The Netherlands : 

New River, Rotterdam to the North Sea 422 

Canal, Amsterdam to the North Sea 422 

Foundation of railway bridge across the Maas 423 

Locks and sluices 425 

Fan locks 425 

Alewijns gates 426 

Lock William III 427 

Model of the Zuy derzee 428 

Draining of the Haarlem Lake 428 

Defense of river banks against current 429 

Coast protections 436 

Downs 4.36 

Dikes 437 

Norway : 

Geological survey ^ 439 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Page. 
Bridges : 

Bridge at Pittsburg 440 

Raritan Bay pivot bridge 442 

Aqueduct of the Roquefavonr 444 

Draw or swing bridge at Marseilles 445 

Cements : 

Report of General Gillmore 447 

Improvement of the Mississippi : 

Brush mattress — Eads 471 

Report of General Simpson 471 

Floating Ligfit houses : 

Harris system 493 

Moody's system 493 

Stone's system 493 

MECHANICAL APPLIANCES. 

Boilers : 

The Pierce rotary tubular 493 

Docks : 

Floating dock — Clark and Stanfield's ., 49t> 

Cox's end dock 503 

Dredging Machinery : 

Hall's bucket 505 

Holroyde's grapple 505 

Electrical appliances : 

Mowbray's powder-keg battery 508 

Mowbray's mica powder 509 

Engines : 

The balance engine 509 

Forges : 

The Empire forge 510 

Keystone portable forges 512 

Power forges 512 

Riveting forge 513 

Navy and miners' forge 514 

Hoisting machinery : 

Portable steam cranes - . . . 515 

Overhead steam cranes 519- 

Road locomotive crane engine 521 

The "Groosokat" • 543 

Pickering's pulley-block 526 

Weston's pulley-blocks 527 

Weston's disk frictions 533 

Friction hoisting engines 536 

Hydraulic presses : 

Compound hydraulic press 538 

Lithography : 

Eckstein's method 540 

Meteorological instruments : 

Self -registering boiling-point thermometer 541 

Six's deep-sea thermometer 542 

Negretti *fc Zambra's deep-sea thermom eter 543 

' Minimum thermometer 545 

Barometer with flexible bulb ;. 545 

Highly sensitive thermometers 546 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

I Page. 

Pile drivers. 

The gunpowder pile-driver 547 

Propellers. 

Fowler steeriug propeller -. . 550 

Pumping machinery : 

Pumps at Ferrara 553 

Andrews' centrifugal pnmx) 557 

Heald & Cisco centrifugal pump 5(30 

Bagle y & Sewall's rotary force pump 563 

Rotary lift and force pump 564 

Baron de Greindl's rotary pump 566 

Compound propeller pump 567 

Aquometer steam pump 569 

Pulsometer steam pump 571 

Nye's steam vacuum pump 573 

Rock-drills : 

Burleigh rock-drill 575 

The Diamond drill 577 

The Union rock-drill 581 

The Victor rock-drill 587 

"Waring's rock-drill 587 

Stone-breaking machinery : 

The Blake crusher 590 

Krom's stone-crusher 592 

Stone-cutting machinery : 

Branch's diamond stone-saw 593 

Emerson's diamond stone-saw 594 

Young's reciprocating diamond saw 595 

Merriman's gang-saw 599 

Stacy stone-dressing machine 600 

Ward well quarrying machine 602 

Testing apparatus: 

Richie's testing apparatus 603 

Underground telegraph. 

Radde's system 603 

II.— :nj:ilit.a.e,y e^s-g-iisteer-i istg-. 

Report of Captain Post : 

Armor-plating 605 

Barracks 609 

Fortifications 611 

Ponton equipages 618 

Report of General Benham : 

Laying of ponton bridges 639 

Ponton bridges for light troops 644 

Description of picket-shovel 646 



y 



THE ENGINEER DEPARTMENT. 



CAPTAIN D. P. HEAP, 

CORPS OP ENGINEERS, 
IN CHARGE OF ENGINEER SECTION, WAR DEPARTMENT PARTICIPATION 



Note. — Tlie pagiug of tlie report on the Engineer section, as given in this publica- 
tion, is the same as the paging under which it appears in Vol. I of the Report of the 
Board on behalf of U. S. Executive Departments at the international Exhihition, 1876 
(in 2 vols.), Washington, Government Printing Office, 1884. 

19 CEN (289) 



OFFICERS OF THE CORP OF ENGINEERS 

ox DUTY AT 

THE ENaiNEER SECTION OF THE WAE DEPARTMENT EXHIBIT, INTER- 
NATIONAL EXHIBITION OF 1876. 

Capt. D. P. Heap. In charge of Section. 

*Capt. Jas. C. Post. From September 30 to close of Exhibition. 

*Lieut. E. H. Ruffxer. From October 17 to close of Exhibition. 

*Lieut. S. S. Leach. From May 1 to September 9. 

The attendants of the Engineer Section were Corporal Martin Doolax and seven 
privates from the Engineer Battalion. 

Mr. H. L. Browxe had immediate charge of the model of Hallet's Point (Hell 
Gate). 

* These officers reported directly to the officer in charge of the Engineer exhibit, 
for temporary dnty, and were not under the orders of the representative of the War 
Department. 

(290) 



~1 



o 



\ 



o.i 



o 






□ □ 



o 



ol 



o 



O. o I 

° □ I 

O o| 



1011.18/(3. 
E DEPARTMENTS. 



[ON, 



DEHEAPU.S.A 
|ofBSi$ne«i-s 

fKryirtau-SeCtUni. 
tneiijtjixhibit. 

: 5.1EACH. U.S.A. 
ofEngineero 



hdef. of iSovniding Max:hine 



Mdcomb 



mL 




"^Id Photogrcxphy [ 



3 


H 


11 


i 


r~ 


-B- 


~T^ 



oage 



r<3 ^ 



U.S.Shippinq andl^ndin 




. 1 



Scunipl^ of 
BuUdin^tone. 



I I 



& 



Gerv.{nllmo7V. 



il 



Model ofSteam'DriHirxgSayw 






Gen. New tori' 



] n n 



GC - bl 



Jiiteriiatioiiul Exhilnlidii, 187(3, 
BOARD ON BEHALMlslXECUtiVE DEPARTMENTS. 




Washington, D. C, 

JS^ovember 30, 1876. 

Colonel : I have the honor to inclose herewith " Catalogue of the 
Engineer section War Department exhibit," arranged as desired in 
circular of June 9, 1876. 

Most of the labor of compiling the catalogue was performed by Lieut 
S. S. Leach, Corps of Engineers, during the hottest of the hot months 
of the past summer. I am indebted to him for this as well as for much 
assistance in the administration of the Engineer section. 
Yery respectfully, your obedient servant, 

D. P. HEAP, 
Captain of Engineers^ 
In charge of Engineer Section^ War Department Exhibit, 
Col. S. C. L^FORD, 

Representative of War Department, 

International Exhibition of 1876. 

(291) 



ENGINEER SECTION WAR DEPARTMENT EXHIBIT. 



In preparing this collection, the attempt was made to exemplify the 
wide scope of duties assigned to the charge of Engineer officers of the 
United States Army, embracing the charge of— 

The river and harbor improvements of the United States. 

The surveys of the Great Lakes. 

Explorations and surveys of the western country. 

The building of fortifications. 

The bnilding of light-houses. 

Torpedoes for harbor defense. 

Military engineering, &c. 

The officers of the Engineer Corps who were in charge of works were 
asked to send or prepare such models and drawings as would exemplify 
their works. The following officers contributed : 
Brig. Gen. A. A. Humphreys. Maj. C. B. Comstock. 

Col. J. N. Macomb. Maj. Godfrey Weitzel. 

Col. J. H. Simpson. Maj. D. C. Houston. 

Lieut. Col. John :N^ewton. . Maj. Wm. E. Merrill. 

Lieut. Col. Geo. Thorn. Maj. Jno M. Wilson. 

Lieut. Col. J. D. Kurtz. Maj. C. E. Suter. 

Lieut. Col. C. E. Blunt. Capt. W. E. King. • 

Lieut. Col. Q. A. Gillmore. Capt. C. W. Howell. 

Maj. G. K. Warren. Capt. W. A. Joues. 

Maj. H. L. Abbot. ^ Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler. 

Maj. W. P. Craighill. 

These officers have charge of every class of work enumerated above 
and the excellence of the exhibit is due to their efforts. Many of them 
sent descriptions with their articles, and wherever this has been done 
the officer's description has been used. The following is the classifica- 
tion adopted for the catalogue: 

Class A. — Maps, drawings, and photographs. 

Class B. — Astronomical, geodetic, and meteorological instruments. 

Class C. — Torpedoes, batteries, and electrical instruments. 

Class D. — Models of engineering works and appliances. 

Class E. — Counterpoise gun-carriages and platforms. 

Class F. — Military engineering. 

Class G. — Miscellaneous. 

Appendix. — Special description of Lieutenant Wheeler's exhibit. 

Account of the commencement of the United States 
Lake Survey. 

(292) 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



293 



HISTORY OF THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS. 



The following condensed history of the Corps of Engineers has been 
kindly furnished by Lieut. Col. Thomas L. Casey, Corps of Engineers: 

Upon the breaking oat of the Revolntionary War persons were employed and ap- 
pointed as engineers, by the several colonies, for service with their troops and in the 
construction of defensive works. 

The first chief engineer in an army of the United States was Col. Richard Gridley 
a half-pay British officer, who served with the Provincial Army in the investment of 
Boston in April, 1775, and subsequently with the Continental Army, in the siege of 
Boston until its surrender. 

The Corps of Engineers as an organized arm of service in the army was first created 
by the resolutions of March 11, 1779, aad, under the operations of ^ihese laws : 

Brig. Gen. Lewis du Portail, an officer of the French Royal Corps of Engineers, who 
as an engineer had been in the service of the United States since the 8th of July 
1777, was made commandant of the Corps of Engineers May 11, 1779, and continued 
in this office until the close of the war, when the corps was discontinued under the 
general provisions for disbanding the army. 

By the act of May 9, 1794, a "Corps of Artillerists and Engineers" was organized, 
containing four battalions, and on the 28th of February, 1795, Stephen Rochefontaine 
was appointed lieutanant-colonel commandant of the same. 

He was succeeded in this ofSce by Henry Burbeck on the 7th May, 1798. 

By the act of April 27, 1798, a second Regiment of Artillerists and Engineers was 
created and John Doughty was appointed its lieutenant-colonel commandant, June 
1, 1798. 

He was succeeded 26th May, 1800, by Louis Tousard. 

By the act of March 16, 1802, the Corps of Artillerists and Engineers was segregated 
into a Corps of Engineers and a regiment of artillery, Maj. Jonathan Williams, of the 
Second Regiment in the Corps of Artillerists and Engineers, being appointed the chief 
engineer; and the ''Corps of Engineers," thus re-established, has had a continuous 
existence in the army until the present date. Its chiefs, who have succeeded Col. 
Jonathan Williams, are as follows : 

Col. and Bvt. Brig. Gen. Joseph Gardiner Swift, appointed July 31, 1812. 

Col. Walker Keith Armistead, appointed November 12, 1818. 

Col. and Bvt. Maj. Gen. Alexander Macomb, appointed June 1, 1821. 

Col. and Bvt. Brig. Gen. Charles Gratiot, appointed May 24, 1828. 

Brig. Gen. and. Bvt. Maj. Gen. Joseph Gilbert Totten, appointed December 7, 1838. 

Brig. Gen. and Bvt. Maj. Gen. Richard Delafield, appointed April 22, 1864. 

Brig. Gen. and Bvt. Maj. Gen. Andrew Atkinson Humphreys, appointed August 8, 
1866. 

By the act of March 3, 1863, the Corps of Topographical Engineers of the Army 
was merged into the Corps of Engineers. The Corps of Topographical Engineers 
was created by act of July 5, 1838, its two chiefs being, in succession, Col. John James 
Abert, appointed July 7, 183S, and Col. Stephen H. Long, appointed September 9, 
1861. 

Topographical engineers were authorized and appointed in the army by the act of 
March 3, 1813. 



294 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

Geographers to the United States of America were provided for the Revolutionary 
Army by the resolutions of Congress, July 25, 1777, and July 11, 1781, Robert Erskine, 
F. R. S., being the first Geographer appointed. 

The Corps of Engineers as now constituted has all the duties formerly imposed upon 
the Corps of Topographical Engiaeers, and is charged with all duties relating to the 
selection, purchase, and survey of the sites, and the plan, construction, and repair 
of all fortifications, whether permanent or temporary, and their care when not gar- 
risoned ; with ail channel and river obstructions, including torpedoes required for 
coast defense ; with all works for the attack and defense of places ; with all fixed 
and movable bridges for the passage of rivers; with all lines, redoubts, intrenched 
camps, bridge-heads, &c., required for the movements and operations of armies in 
the field, and with making such reconnaissances and surveys as may be required for 
these objects. 

It is also charged with the survey, plan, and construction of harbor and river im- 
provements ; with military and geographical explorations, reconnaissances, and sur- 
veys, including the geodetic survey of the lakes ; and with all engineer duties confided 
to other Departments than that of War, which may be specially assigned to the corps 
by acts of Coogress or orders of the President of the United States. 



CATALOaUE OF ENGINEER SECTION. 



Class A. 

MAPS, DRAWINGS, AND PHOTOGRAPHS. 

This class comprises all works and appliances which are represented 
by drawings alone. In case a model accompanies Ihe drawings the de- 
scription of the work will be found with that of the model. 
No. 1. Map made in the office of the Chief of Engineers, and showing 
the character and extent of the engineering works. Explorations and 
surveys of the War Department and of its officers under other De- 
partments of the Cxovernmeut of the United States, from 1776 to 1876. 
Contributed by Brig. Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers. 

This large map is displayed, by permission of tlie '' American Society of Civil Engi- 
neers," in the Main Building, from the west gallery. 

Ko. 2. Graphic representation of the submarine drilling and blasting 
operations on Coenties Reef, East River, New York, up to August, 1875. 
Contributed by Lieut. Col. John [N^ewton, Corps of Engineers, brevet 
major-general, U. S. A., under whose direction the work was done. 

The following principal data appear on the map: 

Total number of holes drilled 693 

Total number of feet drilled 5,467.33 

Total number of drill-hole blasts 97 

Total number of surface blasts 57 

Total number pounds of nitro-glycerine for drill-hole blasts 33, 418. 75 

Total number pounds of nitro- glycerine for surface blasts 2, 262. 05 

Total number pounds of dynamite 74. 05 

Cubic yards of rock removed 5, 553. 03 

Average depth of holes 8. 32 

Expenditure of steel for each foot drilled oz . . 5. 12 

Average of one hole drilled to each sharpening. 

1^0. 3. Graphic representation of the submarine drilling operations on 
Way's Reef, East River, New York. Contributed by General Kewton, 
under whose direction the work was done. 

Work was carried on from August 4, 1874, to January 20, 1875, when a depth of 26 
feet at mean low water was reached. The original maximum depth was 17.4 feet. 
This work was accomplished by means of the United States steam drilling scow (see 
Class D, No. 2). A detailed account of the entire work may be found in the report 
of the Chief of Engineers, 1875, Part II, whence the following data are taken: 

Total- number of holes drilled, 292; total number of feet drilled, 2,130.4; total 
amount of explosives used was : For 65 drill-hole blasts, 15,308 pounds 12 ounces of 

(295) 



296 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

nitro-glyceriae ; for 16 surface blasts, 1,484 pounds nitro-glyceriue and 38 pounds 8 
ounces of dynamite ; rock removed, 3,029 cubic yards. 

This was principally accomplished by dredging, a small amount of the debris last 
remaining being raked off into deeper water. 

Average cost of hole drilled, including placing of scow, lowering dome, expenses 
of drilling, cost of sharpening drills, expenditure of steel, hoisting up dome and heav- 
ing off scow, $2.05 per linear foot. 

'No. 4. Map of the flood-plain of the Minnesota and Mississipiji Eivers 
as far south as Arkansas. Contributed by Maj. G. K. Warren, Corps 
of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 

The following description by General Warren fully explains the points of interest 
which have arisen in connection with the surveys represented in this map : 

" This map is simply what the title indicates, a map showing the lands overflowed 
by these rivers in their highest flood stages, sometimes called alluvial lands and bot- 
tom lavds, here called flood-plain. 

" In connection with it, is shown acopy of the alluviallandsfrom the junction of the 
Ohio River to the Gulf of Mexico^ taken from the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mis- 
sissippi River by Humphreys and Abbot. Also, a small map showing the former con- 
nection of the waters of the Winnipeg Basin in British America with the present Mis- 
sissippi Basin. 

"The investigations resulting in the production of this map were begun in 1866, 
under act of Congress, for the purpose of devising plans for improving the navigation 
of the Minnesota River below the Yellow Medicine River, and of the Mississippi River 
from the Falls of Saint Anthony to the Rock Island Rapids, and also for the purpose 
of obtaining information with regard to bridging the Mississippi River in a manner 
least injurious to its navigation between Saint Paul, Minn., and Saint Louis, Mo. 

" These investigations were carried on during 1866-'67-'68-'69, and embraced also 
examinations or surveys of several main tributaries, such as the Wisconsin River. 

" The field was thus extensive in itself, and the practical objects sought were of the 
highest importance. 

" The interests of navigation demanded and received the attention of a careful in- 
strumental survey at all places needing improvement. The bridging questions were 
liable to arise at any part of the river, and therefore required the whole valley to be 
presented; but as the time and means did not allow of a survey of the whole, the ef- 
fort was made to compile a map from partial surveys made by ourselves and from data 
already existing, notably that of the United States land surveys. A difficulty attend- 
ing the proper compilation of these land surveys arose from their having been made 
on the opposite sides of the Mississippi River from different base lines or meridians, 
without having been connected across the river by triangulations or measurements. 
Such connections we made, as nearly as practicable, at all points of our surveys, which 
surveys not only included places of natural difficulties to navigation, but all places 
where bridges were built or were authorized to be built or believed to be soon neces- 
sary to build. Besides these surveys, special connections of the United States land 
surveys were made at other places, and wherever the margin of the overflowed land 
was undefined by the United States land plats, surveys were made to define them. 
This map is therefore a considerable contribution to the geography of the Mississippi 
Valley, as it for the first time brings together the United States land surveys of the 
opposite banks throughout, with reliability, besides giving the the results of the new 
surveys. 

'' This map has an immediate importance to the subject of bridging the river, in pre- 
senting at a glance the few points along the Mississippi where high natural banks, 
suitable for high bridges, approach close to each other. It is seen from this, that or- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 297 

dinary economy compels the building of low bridges with draw openings, in the way 
which now generally prevails. 

" Another very imp »rtant requirement in the bridge problem is the nature of the 
river-bed as respects its suitability for pier foundations. Almost everywhere the im- 
mediate bed is a shifting sand, with the rock-bed many feet below. To ascertain the 
depth to this rock exactly would require a very large number of expensive T)oring8, 
which expense would be unwarrantable except where the approximate location of a 
bridge was already fixed by the business which demanded its erection. 

''One of the first and most itnportant observations made in the jn-ogress of the in- 
vestigations was, that generally, where the high banks wore close together, the rock- 
bed was near the water surface, and that a wide and more ancient valley, with the 
rock at considerable depths beneath the sand or alluvium, existed alongside of the nar- 
row one. Such places as the Rock Island Rapids, the Des Moines Rapids, and the 
Grand Chain are instances of this kind. 

"Again, lakes like Lake Pepin and Lake Saint Croix are evidences of the^ recent 
silting up of the main valley, at points just below them, to a depth of many feet. 
These together seem to indicate that formerly along the main valley was a river of 
larger size than at present that had worn away the rock to a great depth, but since 
filled up by river deposit, and that where the present Mississippi occupies the ancient 
valley the depth to the bed-rock must always be great. Borings wherever made in 
the ancient valley confirmed this inference, and showed that the depth to the bed-rock 
in this valley had no relation to the present river. Practical engineers have now gen- 
erally abandoned the attempt to reach the bed-rock for pier foundations, but rest 
them upon piles driven into the sand and protected from being undermined by the 
current by loose stone thrown around them. 

"A study of the nature of the valley of the Mississippi in the interest of the practi- 
cal questions involved unavoidably drew on a consideration of the causes formerly at 
work and the changes going on, and this carried the investigation into the region of 
surface or present geology. In making this latter, a highly probable showing has been 
made that the Minnesota and Mississippi were formerly much larger streams, receiv- 
ing the waters of the Lake Winnipeg Basin. 

"As it did not appear probable that such a great change of drainage could stand 
alone, examination was made of other streams. A similar change appears to have 
taken place with the drainage of Lake Winnebago , in the State of Wisconsin, of 
Lake Michigan foroaerly down the Illinois River, and of the Saint Mary's and Saint 
Joseph's Rivers formerly down the Wabash, now to Lake Erie. Several other simi- 
lar changes were pointed out as i^robable. These features were stated at the annual 
meeting of the Academy of Natural Science at Chicago, 111., in 1868, and published in 
the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1868, 

"At that time, too, the hypothesis was advanced that this change of drainage was 
due to a secular change in the continental slopes, and confirmations of it were cited. 
The whole subject is further presented in an essay on the Minnesota River, &c., pub- 
lished in 1875, as Ex. Doc. No. 76, 43d Congress, ^d session ; also reprinted in the An- 
nual Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1875. 

"It is purposed to make very soon a full report on this subject, with copies of the 
original maps and diagrams. The present map is but an index map to the more de- 
tailed sheets, on a scale of two inches to a mile, which latter are in turnindex sheets 
to the detailed surveys, on scales of 200 and 400 feet to an inch." 

Xos. 5, 6, and 7. Plan, longitudinal section, and cross sections of an 
iron shipping and landing pier being erected in the Delaware Break- 
water Harbor, under the direction of Lieut. Gol. J. D. Kurtz, brevet 
colonel, IJ. S. A. Drawings contributed by Colonel Kurtz, and exhib- 
ted in connection with a model of the pier. (See class D, iSTo. 9.) 



298 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

No. 8. Survey of the Delaware Breakwater Harbor, made in 1871-'73, 
by direction of Colonel Kurtz. Contributed by Colonel Kurtz. 

General plan, showing the hydrography of the harbor and the topography of the 
adjacent shore, with the protective works (breakwater and ice-breaker), and the lo- 
cation of the United States shipping and landing pier. This harbor is sitnated at the 
mouth of Delaware Bay, on the Delaware side, just inside of Cape Henlopen. It is 
sheltered from northwest to east winds by the artificial works, and from other quar- 
ters by the land. The works were commenced in 1830 and finished in 1869. 

They contain nearly 900,000 tons of granite stone, costing |2, 125,000. The stones be- 
low low water range from \ to 2J tons, and are deposited at random. The upper 
stones are from 'i\ to 5 tons' weight, and are laid with some regularity on the top sur- 
face and inner slope. The top surface of the breakwater is 14 feet above mean low 
water, with an average width of 22 feet. The slope of the sea face is 1 on 3, and the 
harbor face 1 on 1. 

The two works are 1,350 feet apart, and are placed at an angle of 148° to each 
other. The breakwater is 2,560 feet long on top, audits axis projected intersects the 
ice-breaker about midway of its length. 

The latter work is 1,345 feet long, its top is about 12 feet above mean low water, and 
its construction is similar to the main work. The upper half of the harbor affords 
not more than 3 fathoms of water at low water, the lower half gives about 22 feet. 
The mean tide is 4 feet 6 inches. An average of about 15,000 vessels are recorded as 
having taken refuge in the harbor each year since 1868. 

It having long been evident that the increased use of the harbor made an enlarge- 
ment of its protected area advisable, a board of engineers was convened in October, 
1871, to consider and report upon different plans proposed for this enlargement. The 
board decided in favor of closing the gap between the breakwater and ice-breaker with 
stone, at an estimated cost of $1,314,200. No appropriation for this work has since 
been made. 

No. 9. Plans and sections of breakwater ; and No. 10, plans and sec- 
tions of ice-breaker, of Delaware Breakwater harbor. Contributed 
by Colonel Kurtz. 

These drawings were prepared from surveys of the completed work, commenced 
under Lieut. Col. C. S. Stewart, Corps of Engineers, who was in charge of the work 
at the time of its completion, and finished under Colonel Kurtz. They give horizon- 
tal sections at top at jilane of low water and at bottom with cross-sections at inter- 
vals of 100 feet. 

No. 11. Chart of Crow Shoal and locality inside of Cape May, at the 
mouth of Delaware Bay. Surveyed with a view to the formation of 
an artificial harbor on the New Jersey side. Contributed by Colo- 
nel Kurtz. 

No. 12. Improvement of Philadelphia Harbor. Chart of the Schuyl- 
kill River from Chestnut street bridge to its mouth, showing the im- 
provements in progress by the United States. Contributed by Colo- 
nel Kurtz. 

This work was commenced in 1870, when there were 15 feet at low water at the mouth 
of the river, and 13 feet at Gibson's Point. From the mouth to the latter locality 
there is now a channel 20 feet deep, with a width of about 150 feet. Above Gibson's 
there is a channel about 75 feet wide, with 16 to 18 feet depth at low tide. 

About 366,000 cubic yards of sand and mud and 900 cubic yards of rock have been 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 299 

removed from the river channel. It is proposed to increase the width at the mouth 
to 300 feet, and the depth to 24 feet, and above Gibson's the width is 150 feet with a 
depth of 18 feet. 

1^0. 13. Foundations of Fort Delaware. Contributed by Colonel Kurtz. 

The piles composing the foundation of this fort on the Pea Patch Island were 
driven in 1848. A number of these were driven still deeper by means of "followers" 
during the next year. The whole was then tested with a ringing i)ile engine, and 
those which did not stand the required test (about 1,700 in number) were again 
spliced and redriven. A large part of these were redriven or ''punched " by an ar- 
rangement devised by Maj. John Sanders, Corps of Engineers, then in charge of the 
work, in which the hammer gave a short, quick, and uniform blow, so that the piles 
were easily driven home without breaking the pile-heads or requiring bands as pro- 
tection ; about one-tenth of the whole number of piles were spliced with extra 
lengths of 10 or 15 feet. The piles were of Chesapeake yellow pine varying in size 
from 13 by 14 to 12 inches diameter at the butt, and from 12 by 12 to 7 inches diam- 
eter at the point ; the point scarps were 6 feet long. The piles were 45 feet long be- 
fore pointing. 

The grillage timbers were of white pine 12 inches square ; these were worked 
down to something less than 12 inches in fitting them to the jjile-heads. 

The piles were placed generally at distances from center to center varying from 2 
feet 9 inches to 3 feet 6 inches. 

Each pile under the scarp support-s 14 tons' weight, equal to 32,000 pounds maxi- 
mum. Each pile under the piers supports about 13 tons' weight, or 30,000 pounds 
maximum. Total horizontal area of scarp on ground level, 7,700 square feet. Total 
horizontal area of piers on ground level, 5,300 feet. Total horizontal grillage area 
Of scarp, 20,000 square feet. Total horizontal grillage area of piers, 27,000 square 
feet. Total weight of work and armament, 75,000 tons. Total number of piles under 
the structure, 6,006. Total area of work, 2f acres. 

Borings made in 1834 gave the stratification of site as follows : From low-water 
mark, 42 feet of mud mixed with sand. Below this, 20 feet of coarse gray sand, fol- 
lowed by a layer of shells with a little sand. The shells decrease and disappear at 
80 feet, the coarse sand continuing to 92 feet where clay is obtained. 

^No. 14. Yiew of monolithic concrete as constructed on piles at Fort Pu- 
laski, Ga., under the supervision of Lieut. Col. Q. A. Gillmore, Corps 
of Engineers, brevet major-general U. S. A. Contributed by General 
Gillmore. 

This drawing represents the monolithic concrete structures of the demilune of Fort 
Pulaski as actually built, resting throughout on piles and grillage, with the non- 
bearing mud removed. The supporting stratum is sand and oyster shells, into which 
the piles have been driven from 8 to 10 feet. The thickness of mud between the sur- 
face of the bearing stratum and mean low water varies from to 16 feet. The top of 
''he grillage is generally placed 5 feet above mean low water, the rise of the tide at 
Fort Pulaski being 7 feet. The mud stratum of Cockspur Island is constantly impreg- 
nated with moisture to the level of high water. The piles and grillage are of yellow 
pine. The concrete is made of hydraulic cement, sand, and oyster shells. 

The structures shown comprise a portion of the scarp-wall of both faces of the demi- 
lune, the foundations of gun platforms, and the breast-height walls for six guns, three 
service magazines, and one principal or storage magazine (in the center), with con- 
necting bomb-proof passages, and a retaining- wall on the south face. 

The scarp-wall was built about forty years ago, and consists of a brick facing and 
concrete backing. All the other structures were commenced in 1872, and finished in 
1875, and are entirely of concrete, except some copings, lintels, sills, and steps, for 
door-ways and entrances, which are of granite. 



300 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

ISTo. 15, Drawings of a mortar-mill and concrete-mixer, used upon the 
public works of the United States. Contributed by General Gill- 
more. 

The details of the concrete-mixer are taken from the one employed at Fort Scam- 
mel, Portland, Me. 

The mortar-mill consists of a cylindrical tube or barrel 10 feet 3 inches long and 
19 inches diameter, tbe axis of which is inclined at an angle of about 25°. The barrel 
is supported at the ends upon a frame-work of timber, which is in turn mounted upon 
a two- wheel carriage, the axle of which also supports the barrel near the middle. 
One end of the frame rests upon the ground, thus giving the required inclination. 
Within the barrel is a rotating shaft, bearing a helical blade 6 inches in breadth, 
having about thirteen turns in the length of the barrel. The outer edge of the blade 
works close to the inner surface of the barrel, the inner edge being thrown out from 
the shaft about \\ inches. 

Portions of the top of the barrel are cut away, leaving apertures about 8 inches 
wide, sections being left at intervals to avoid weakening the barrel. At the lower 
end of the barrel a hopper is arranged, through which the mill is fed. 

To the lower end of the frame before described another frame is firmly attached 
and rests horizontally on the ground. This frame carries a large pulley, to which the 
power is applied, this pulley being connected by a beveled pinion and wheel, with the 
rotating shaft. 

The method of charging the mill is given in the following description of the Con- 
crete Mixer (Fig. 1, 2, and 3), which is taken from General Gillmore's work on ''Limes, 
Hydraulic Cements, and Mortars," 4th edition: 

" Mill-made concrete. — The mill used for making concrete is a cubical wooden box 
measuring 4 feet on each edge in the inside. It is provided on. one face with a trap- 
door about 2 feet square, and is mounted. <»ij an iron axle passing through opposite 
diagonal corners. An Archimedean screw mortar mill for mixing the concrete mortar 
s used in connection with the box, and both are driven by a small engine of about 6- 
horse power. 

"Eight revolutions of the box, made in less than one minute, are found to be quite 
sufficient to produce the most thorough incorporation of the mortar with the broken 
stone and gravel. Every piece of stone and everj^ pebble and gravel becomes com- 
pletely coated with mortar. 

"In making the mortar the cement, lime, and sand are first rudely mixed together 
with shovels on the mortar bed, and are then passed through the mill once; one 
measure of the dry mixture (about a cubic foot) alternating with one small measure 
of water. The precise amount of water necessary is determined by triul, and will 
vary from time to time with the more or less moist condition of the sand. 

"Four men with barrows are employed in conveying the concrete materials (the mor- 
tar, broken stone, and gravel) into the concrete box, one barrowful of mortar (2 
cubic feet) alternating with three heaped-up barrowfuls of the coarse ingredients (7 
cubic feet). The materials are dumjied into the box from a staging erected on the 
level of the trap-door when at its highest point. 

" One charge of the box contains: 

"4 barrows of mortar (8 cubic feet). 

"6 heaped-up barrows of broken stone (14 cubic feet). 

"6 heaped-up barrows of gravel (14 cubic feet). 

"After mixing, the trap-door is opened and the contents deposited on the platform 
below by two or three revolutions of the box. The concrete box produces such a 
thorough and complete trituration of its contents, that it is not necessary that the 
mortar should be mixed beforehand. The mortar mill, as an auxiliary, may therefore 
be dispensed with. 

"The ingredients of the mortar (the cement, lime, sand, and water), after being prop- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 3OI 

erly proportioned by measure, and rudely mixed together with shovels, require no 
further preparation, but may at once be added to the coarse materials in the box, 

" The method of charging the box by barrows, practiced at the Staten Island works, 
is not considered the most economical that can be devised. A crane or derrick, worked 
by the same engine that turns the box, and having a sweep of sufficient length to 
reach the mortar bed and the piles of broken stone and gravel, would doubtless be 
an improvement. A concrete box employed by General Duane, in Portland Harbor, 
Me., is operated in this way. 

"One box of the capacity above described will mix from 95 to 100 cubic yards of 
concrete in one day of 10 hours, and will do the work very mlich better than it can 
be done by hand, and at a saving of from 15 to 20 per cent, in the cost of labor." 

The machine represented on the drawing differs in a few details from the one 
described. It is also provided with the crane for loading, as suggested by General 
Gillmore. 

No. 16. Yiew of Milwaukee Harbor. Oontribated by Maj. D. 0. Houston, 
Corps of Eugineers, brevet colonel, U. S. A. 

The following description was written by Colonel Houston : 

"Designed to illustrate the general method adopted by the Corps of Engineers in 
improving the mouths of rivers emptying into the great lakes, of which this harbor is 
one of the best examples. The natural mouth of the Milwaukee Eiver was about three- 
fourths of a mile south of the present entrance. The latter was formed by making a 
cut through the narrow sand spit separating the river from the lake, building the two 
piers shown in the view, and dredging the channel between them. The present har- 
bor entrance is entirely artificial, the old mouth having closed up soon after the new 
entrance was made. ^ 

"Before this work was executed the commerce of Milwaukee was conducted from 
wharves in the open lake, and vessels had no protection whatever. Now there is a 
channel 17 feet deep, and vessels can enter the river at all times. The piers are con- 
structed of cribs of timber filled with stone. 

"The lakes being fresh water, the timber under water lasts indefinitely ; that above 
water from fifteen to twenty years. The superstructure of the piers, i. e., the part 
above water (built in 1857), is now being replaced \ij a wall of heavy stone masonry 
laid without mortar.. This will produce a permanent structure. 

"The eifect of such piers projected into the lake is to arrest the drift of sand and 
shingle along the beach caused by prevailing winds, and to cause an accretion. In 
the case of Milwaukee this drift is to the south, and hence there is an accretion on 
the north side of the harbor, and an advance of the shore line into the lake. This 
'results in a gradual shoaling of the lake bed north of the harbor, necessitating a 
periodical extension of the piers. In Milwaukee Harbor this shoaling is very gradual, 
the harbor piers having been extended but 620 feet since 1857, or at the rate of about 
30 feet per annum. A large part of this extension, however, was rendered necessary 
to attain an increased depth of water in order to accommodate vessels of greater 
draught, the piers originally having their heads in but 12 feet of water, but now in 17 
feet. 

"The entire cost of this work is, in round numbers, $500,000, which would be an an- 
nual expenditure of less than $27,000, to provide a secure harbor for the principal 
wheat mart of the West and a harbor of refuge for vessels in distress." 

No. 17 to 20, inclusive. Improvement of Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. 
Photographic views of sione dam at Appleton, Wis. Contributed by 
Colonel Houston. 

This is one of the works of construction on the above-mentioned improvement, 
the object of which is to obtain water communication from the Mississippi to the 
lakes. These rivers take their rise in the central portion of the State of Wisconsin, 



302 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

the Fox emptyiiif;: into Green Bay, and the Wisconsin into the Mississippi River. At 
a point nearly midway between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi, these streams are 
less than 2 miles apart, separated by a low neck of land which is sometimes over- 
flowed at high water. At this point, called Portage, the rivers are connected by a 
canal. The improvement consists in making slack-water navigation on the Fox by 
means of locks and dams, and improving the natural channel of the Wisconsin by con- 
tracting it by means of wing dams and jetties. 

Nos. 21 and 22. Improvement of Fox and Wisconsin Elvers. Stone 
lock at Little Chute. Contributed by Colonel Houston. 

This shows the character of the locks now being constructed. There are twenty- 
seven of these locks .and sixteen dams in the plan or improvement. The levels are 
connected by short canals, making a total length of canal from the Wisconsin River 
to Green Bay, a distance of 160 miles, of only 10 miles. The levels formed by the 
dams are deepened, where necessary, by dredging. 

Xos. 23 to 26, inclusive. Improvement of Fox and Wisconsin Eivers. 
Wing dams on Wisconsin Eiver. Contributed by Colonel Houston. 

These views show the general character of the river and some of the dams. The 
effect of these is to narrow the water-way, confine the current, and consequently in- 
crease the depth. The sand, of which the river bed is composed, is scoured out and 
deposited between the dams, as shown in the views. New banks are thus formed, 
the width of the water-way reduced, and an increased depth of channel obtained. — 
Colonel HousTOX. 

No. 27. View of river scraper used on the Wisconsin Eiver. Contrib- 
uted by Colonel Houston. 

This is used for temporarily deepening the channel to admit the passage of boats. 
The steamer is run up-stream on the bar, the scraper lowered, and the steamer backed 
off, dragging the cre.st of the bar into deep water below. It is a modification of the 
scraper invented by the late Colonel Long, of the Topographical Engineers. It has 
not been of much service on the Wisconsin River, but has been successfully used else- 
where. — Colonel Houston. 

No. 28. Photographic view of steam dredge owned by the United 
States, for the improvement of the Fox Eiver. Contributed by Col- 
onel Houston. 

This machine is of the class known as dipper or single scoop dredges. 

An examination of these rivers with a view to establishing a continuous water 
communication along them was made in 1866. On the Fox, as the records and maps 
of the Fox River Improvement Company (whose works already occupied the Upper 
and Lower Fox) were available, estimates were submitted for enlarging their works 
to admit of 4-foet draught. On the Wisconsin, the examination discovered the neces- 
sity of a detailed survey before attempting to fix upon any plan of improvement. 

A survey, of the Wisconsin was accordingly made in 1868, under the direction of 
General Warren. His report upon this survey, in which he discusses the nature and 
characteristics of these streams, may be found in the Report of the Chief of Engineers 
for 1868. General Warren submitted three plans of improvement, the last of which 
he reconn:nended. 

This plan consisted in cutting a side canal, crossing the river from time to time to 
keep on the most advantageous ground, and making use of the river irself at the points 
of crossing. At these points the river was to be improved, and experimental work 
was commenced at one of these points in June, 1871. The experiments were so satis- 
factory that it was deemed practicable to obtain the requisite draught along the en- 
tire line by improving the natural channel of the river, which was the first of Gen- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



303 



eral Warren's plaus, referred to above. Revised estimates embracing the results of 
the experimental work were made ; the work was begun, and has since been carried on. 

In October, 1872, the existing works on the Fox River were purchased by the United 
States, but nothing beyond their mere maintenance was projected, until the results 
which could be obtained on the Wisconsin were known, since it would be useless to 
improve either of the rivers beyond the capacity which he obtained in the other. In 
April, 1873, the work of improvement on the Fox was begun, and has since steadily 
progressed according to the plan indicated heretofore. 

Colonel Houston has been in charge of the work, and descriptions in full detail may 
be found in his reports. (Reports of Chief of Engineers, 1872-73-74, Part I, and 1875, 
Part I.) 

No. 29. Photographs of Red River raft ; No. 30. Photographic map of 
Red River, showiug the location and direction of the views in the al- 
bum (No. 40) ; and No. 31. Photographic map of Red River raft region 
and Cypress Ba^^ou, contributed by Oapt. 0. W. Howell, Corps of En- 
gineers, brevet major, U. S. A. 

The navigation of Red River has from its commencement been obstructed by the 
accumulation of drift-wood in its channel. 

Not only has navigation been interfered with, but the river itself has undergone 
great changes, and large areas of its valley have been laid waste by the overflow of 
water dammed back by the raft. A scanty navigation has been continuously carried 
on by making use of the lakes, sloughs, &c., which abound in this region, and also 
using the channels cut by the obstructed water of the river which forced an outlet 
at different points. 

To improve the navigation of this river in accordance with the demands of com- 
merce has long occupied the attention of those interested. Two general plans have 
been proposed, and both have at different times been tried, but with indifferent suc- 
cess until the present operations were commenced. The first plan had for its object 
the removal of the raft, thus opening the natural channel of the river; the other ac- 
cepted and encouraged the existing obstructions in the river itself, and endeavored 
to enlarge and improve the side channels above alluded to. 

The present work is in accordance with the former of these two methods, and act- 
ual work on the raft was commenced December 1, 1872. 

At this time the area of the floating timber was about 290 acres, and it consisted of 
forty-two rafts, with more or less of clear water between them, and extended from 
Carolina Bluffs, a few miles north of Shreveport, to within a short distance of the 
Arkansas line. The work was performed by means of saw-boats, axes, crane boats, 
and explosives. On December 26, 1873, a little more than a year from the commence- 
ment, the last raft. No. 42, was pierced. (See for further details the Report of the 
Chief of Engineers for 1873-74.) 

Much of the success of this undertaking may be attributed to the great energy and 
ability displayed by the officer under whose personal supervision the work was com- 
menced, but who was not permitted to see its successful termination. 

Lieut. E. A. Woodruft", Corps of Engineers, the officer referred to, died of yellow 
fever at Sbreveport while in the active discharge of his duties. 

No. 32. Drawings of works in the eleventh light-house district. Con- 
tributed by Maj. Godfrey Weitzel, Corps of Engineers, brevet major- 
general, U. S. A., engineer of the district. 

The portfolio contains : 

1. Chart of the lights in the eleventh district. 

2. Plans, sections, and elevations of the following lights : 

Saint Clair Flats, fourth order. 
Spectacle Reef. 



304 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

Skillagalee, third order. 

D6tour, Whltefisti Point, and Manitoii Island, third and a half order. 
Marquette. 

Copper Harbor range lights, first order. 
Michigan City, fifth order. 
Grosse Point, second order. 
Pier-Head light, fifth order. 
3. Drawings of fog signal with 10-inch whistle. 

No. 33. Photographs of Louisville and Portland Canal, Louisville, Ky 
Contributed by Maj. G. Weitzel, Corps of Engineers, brevet major- 
general, U. S. A. 

In 1825 the Kentucky legislature authorized a private corporation to construct a 
canal around the natural obstruction to navigation known as the Falls of the Ohio 
Eiver. This canal was completed in 1S30, at a cost of $1,019,277.09. It was l-^^ miles 
long, 64 feet wide, with three lift locks, each of which was 200 feet long, 50 feet wide, 
and had a lift of 8f feet. Soon after the completion of this work complaints were 
raised that the tolls levied were a burden on commerce, and public opinion decided 
that the United States, one of the original stockholders, should own the canal and make 
it free. Acting upon this the Kentucky legislature in 1842 authorized the president 
and directors to apply the net income to the liquidation of individual stock, and in 
1855 all such stock excepting five shares held by directors having been purchased, the 
United States in order to take possession had only to promise an enlargement and re- 
duction of tolls. Congress, though appealed to, took no action, and, at the suggestion 
of the Secretary of the Treasury, the directors prepared plans and obtained authority 
from the legislature to issue bonds and enlarge the canal. In 1860, Congress having rati- 
fied this authority, Mr. T. R. Scowden, a distinguished hydraulic engineer, was em- 
ployed to make detailed plans and superintend the improvement. In 1866, after ex- 
pending about $1,800,000, the company was obliged to suspend operations, leaving 
the work in an unfinished condition. In 1868 Congress commenced a series of appro- 
priations, and the work was placed in charge of the Chief of Engineers, United States 
Army. On the 26th of February, 1872, the new canal, though still incomplete, was 
thrown open to navigation, and November, 1873, the new work was virtually com- 
pleted. The cost of the enlargement of canal and construction of new locks was about 
$3,250,000, of which the Government paid about $1,450,000. On the 11th of June, 
1874, in accordance with an act of Congress, the United States assumed the bonded 
debt of the company, took possession of the canal, and reduced the tolls to a nominal 
sum, barely sufficient for management and ordinary repairs. The present canal leaves 
the Ohio River in front of the city of Louisville, passes in a westerly direction around 
the falls, and enters the river just above Portland, Ky. Its length is 2-n7 miles and its 
general width is 86^ feet. The upper entrance is 400 feet wide and suitable turn-out 
basins are provided. A dam on the crest of the falls will give, when completed, a mini- 
mum depth in the canal of 6 feet. The depth of the water in the canal depends upon 
the stage of water in the river; the least depth being, as just stated, 6 feet, and the 
greatest depth known about 42 feet 8 inches. 

The great expense of the work is due to the fact that its bed is cut through hard 
limestone rock, and its sides are protected by stone walls, above which rise earthen 
parapets to a height of 44 feet above canal bottom and 1^ feet above highest known 
flood. A set of guard gates at the head provide for shutting off" water when neces- 
sary. At the lower end are the old locks, still preserved as originally constructed, 
and the two new locks which form the outlet of a short branch canal. These new 
locks are the pioneers of their size in the world ; they have lifts of 12 and 14 feet ; 
their length between miter-posts is 372 feet ; available length, 335 feet, and width, 80 
feet. The side walls, breast walls, miter-sills, and the piers of the swing-bridge which 
spans the locks, are built of freestone from Cannelton, Ind. All the masonry is cut 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



305 



stone, laid iu hydraulic cemeut iu regular 200-foot coursed, and lias for a fouudation the 
same solid rock that forms the floor of the locks. The guard or flood gates at the 
head of the locks are 47f feet long, and 46 feet 11 inches high. The ui^per lift gates 
are 47f feet long, 24f feet high, and built of a couibination of oak and pino. Th& 
middle and lower lift gates are 47| feet long, 31 feet 2f inches, and 27 feet 2 inches- 
high, respectivel3^ They are built entirely of oak except planking, which is of pine. 
The heavy pressure brought on these gates and their enormous size necessitates great 
strength. The quoin-posts are 28 by 28 inches, and the raiter-posts 24 by 28 inches. 
Each post is built of live pieces. The gate arms are each formed of three pieces. They 
are 4^ feet wide at center, 12 inches thick at bottom of gate, 6 inches thick at top, 
and 22^ inches from center to center. The .".rms are tenoned into the posts and firmly 
held by iron straps. The planking is 2^ inches thick and placed vertically. Bolts, 
straps, tie-rods, and heavy fenders strengthen and protect the gates. A chilled-iron 
socket in the foot of the quoin-post rests and turns on a pivot bolted to the rock^ 
The pivot of hollow quoin having different centers, the gates slightly leave the quoim 
when opening. The top of quoin-post is held by an iron collar. A portion of the 
weight of the gates is carried by a mast and suspension rods, and a portion by a roller 
under the gate near the miter-post. The weight of each gate in the middle set is 
about 89 tons. The gates are moved by capstans on the side walls adjacent to them. 
The capstan communicates motion to two horizontal shafts under the coping, which 
carry drums on which wind and unwind the chains that move the gates. One chaia 
is attached to nearest gate near the foot of its miter-post ; the other is carried across 
and attached to opposite gate, sufficient slack being allowed. Turning the capstan 
in one direction opens the gates, and tTirning in the opposite direction closes them. 
The miter-sills are built in an arched form and abut in the side walls, each stone 
being bolted to the rock bed. Oak timbers, also bolted to the rock, are supported by 
the arched stones, form a cushion against which the gates close. The chambers are 
filled and emptied through the gates, there being ten openings, each 30 by 36 inches^, 
in each set. These openings are at the bottom of the gates, and are closed by iron. 
Avickets turning upon a vertical axis operated from the top of the gate. During high- 
water the lower lock is frequently submerged, and occasionally both locks are entirely 
under water. At such times the sediment deposited in the canal and locks is so ex- 
tensive that a steamboat and two dredges are constantly emj)loyed removing it. 
Except during high water, when there are 10 feet or more at the head of the falls, 
the entire navigation of the Ohio River passes through the canal. During the year 
1875, 2,880 boats passed through the locks. — General Weitzel. 

No. 34. Portfolio containing drawings of the Saint Mary's Falls Canal, 
Michigan, and Harbor of Eefuge, Lake Huron. Contributed by Gen- 
eral Weitzel. 

The Saint Mary's Falls Canal was built to enable vessels to pass around the rapids 
in the Saint Mary's River connecting Lakes Superior and Huron. The rapids have 
a fall of 18 feet in a distance of one-half mile. The canal is 15 miles from Lake 
Superior and 60 miles from Lake Huron by the course of the river. 

In 1850 a grant of 750,000 acres of land was made to the State of Michigan, bj' act; 
of Congress, to defray the cost of building the canal. 

A company was organized and entered into contract with the State to build the 
canal for the land grant. Work was commenced in 1853, and on the 18th day of 
June, 1855, the canal was opened to navigation. It is supposed that it cost the com- 
pany about $1,000,000. 

As originally built the canal was 5,400 feet in length, had a width of 100 feet at 
the water-line, with paved slopes of \\ to 1, and a depth of 12 feet of water at mean 
stage. 

The locks, located near the foot of the canal, were two in number, combined, each 
20 CEN 



3o6 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, \%-i(i. 

350 feet in length, 70 feet in width, with a lift of 9 feet. /, A guard gate was located 
near the upper end of the canal. 

At the time it was constructed the canal was considered ample in all its dimen- 
sions for the existing or prospective demands of navigation, but owing to the rapid 
development of the commerce of the lakes and the improvement of the harbors, a 
class of vessels appeared too large to pass the canal when fully laden, and the number 
increased to such an extent as to occasion very serious delays at the canal, and the 
hulls of vessels frequently were injured hy contact with the slope walls below the 
water-line. To ameliorate these evils the improvement of the canal was taken in 
hand by the United States, and work commenced in 1870. 

When completed the improvements will consist of a new lock parallel to and oppo- 
site the old locks at a clear distance of 100 feet from them ; an enlargement of the 
old canal so as to uncover the approaches to the new lock, deepening the canal to a 
depth of 16 feet of water, removing the old slope walls, and substituting for them a 
timber revetment with a vertical face. 

The chamber of the lock will be 515 feet long, 80 feet wide, with a lift of 18 feet, 
and a depth of 17 feet of water over the sills. To facilitate repairs, a pair of guard 
gates will be placed above the lock chamber and another j)air below it. The esti- 
mated cost of the improvement is §1,800,000. 

The great cost of both the original work and the improvement is due to the diffi- 
cult character of the, excavation, consisting of sandstone overlaid with a compact bed 
of gravel and bowlders, to the remoteness of the work from points where supplies can 
be obtained, and to the severity of the winters, during which season a large part of 
the work was done. — General Weitzel. 

Drawings of Harbor of Refuge. 
Lake Huron, four sheets : 
a. Map of the lake. 
h. Chart of the harbor. 

c. Details of cribs. 

d. Details of cribs. 

See, for description, Class D, Ko. 14. 

No. 35. Map of the Mississippi Eiver, between the Hlinois and Ohio 
Rivers. In eleven sheets, scale 1 to 30,000. Contributed by Col. J. 
H. Simpson, Corps of Engineers, brevet brigadier-general,. U. S. A. 

This map was constructed from surveys made under the direction of Lieut. Col. 
W. F. Raynolds and Colonel Simpson, 1870-'75. This portfolio also contains draw- 
ings illustrating the construction of dams and dikes proposed for the improvement 
of this river in three sheets. 

The portion of the river included in these maps is 230 miles long. 

This section is liable to floods rising to a height of 41 feet above low water ; the 
mean annual variation is 23.6 feet. These changes of volume produce notable 
changes in the bed of the stream. Erosions and accretions are extensive, but the 
greatest changes are in the position and depth of the channel; changes which take 
place so rapidly and frequently that it is impractible to execute surveys which would 
convey any true impression of the hydrographic features of the river as a whole. 

The surveys from which these maps have been constructed have been in progress 
several years, and therefore the hydrographic work is wholly omitted. 

The first eleven sheets form a continuous map of the Mississippi between the Illi- 
nois and Ohio Rivers on a scale of 1 inch to 2,500 feet. 

The use of rafts or "mattresses" in the improvement of the Mississippi was sug- 
gested by Capt. Charles J. Allen, Corps of Engineers, to Lieut. Col. William F. Ray- 
nolds, Corps of Engineers, then -in charge of the improvement of this part of the 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 



107 



river, in a report dated February 7, 1872. Subsequently a model was made under the 
direction of Col. J. H. Sin)pson, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., who had relieved 
Lieutenant-Colonel Raynolds. The suggestion of Captain Allen was modified some- 
what after the publication of General Barnard's '"'Report on the Xorth Sea Canal of 
Holland, &c., Washington, 1872," which contains a description of a fascine raft, *' zink- 
stukken." This model is represented in sheet No. 12, bearing date of May, 1873, of 
which a reduced drawing was published in the report of the Chief of Engineers for 1873. 
The mode of construction was described in specifications for " brush rafts" to be sunk 
for foundations contained in instructions to bidders on work for the improvement of 
the Mississippi River, May 23, 1873, and attached to the contracts for that year, of 
which they form a part. 

These brush rafts or mattresses were intended for use in deep water and rapid cur- 
rent, where piles to hold loose brush in position could not be relied upon. They were 
not used for the reason that the conditions of the works did not require departure 
from the cheaper mode of securing foundations witli piles and loose brush. 

Sheet No. 13 shows details of construction of dikes in the Mississippi between the 
Illinois and Ohio Rivers. Rows of piles are driven to liold in position loose brush 
whick is thrown in in alternate longitudinal and cross layers and sunk by broken 
stone. Upon this foundation the dike or dam of broken stone and riprap is con- 
structed. This method, substituting on ecouobiical grounds loose brush for the fas- 
cines in general use in Europe, had been used on several minor Western rivers. It 
was employed under Lieutenant-Colonel Raynolds in 1872 on the Mississippi feiver 
near Alton, 111. The dam there constructed served as test work, and this mode of 
construction proving successful has since been followed in all essential features. 

Sheet 14 is a comparative map of the Mississippi River near Horsetail Bar. — Colo- 
nel Simpson. 

1^0. 36. General profile of the Ohio River, compiled from official surveys 
under the direction of Maj. William E. Merrill, Corps of Engineers, 
brevet colonel, U. S. A., with a comparison of average slopes for each 
section of 20 miles. 

1. Horizontal scale, 1 inch to 20 miles. Vertical scale, 1 inch to 20 
inches. 

2. Horizontal scale, 1 inch to 20 miles. Vertical scale, 1 inch to 3 
inches. 

The general profile of the Ohio River is the profile at low water ; and it will he 
seen on examination that the surface slopes vary greatly in ditferent parts of the 

river. — Colonel Merrill. 

» 

Ko. 37. Lake Survey maps. Contributed by Major Comstock, Corps oJ 
Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 

These are duplicates of the Lake Survey charts, which will be found catalogued 
with " Engineer Publications," Class G. 

The following memoranda concerning the Lake Survey charts were arranged by 
First Lieut. D. W. Lockwood, Corps of Engineers : 

"The United States Lake Survey charts comprise those of the Great Lakes, so far as 
completed, and those of special localities on the lakes where the dangers to navigation 
are such as to require more care in exhibiting details than the small scale to which 
the lake charts proper are constructed would permit. 

"The lake charts are constructed to a scale of Tuwirdj while the scales of special 
charts vary, being in some cases as great as fchJo- 

"The usual plan for survey of a lake is as follows : 

"1. The establishment of a primary triangulation, the average probable error of 



3o8 



INTERNATIOXAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



whose angles shall not exceed four-tenths of a second, the probable error of its bases 
not exceeding uowoo part of their length. 

^'2. The determination, from the primary triangulation, of secondary points along 
the shore line to be surveyed, not more than 10 or 15 miles apart, these distances 
being much less when a secondary or tertiary triangulation can be carried along, 
the shore. 

"3. A detailed topographical and hydrographical survey along the shore, based on 
these points, extending inland about three-fourths of a mile, and lakewards for half a 
mile, or to the 4-fathoni curve ; scale of topographical sheets, iqoqo or 2 o^oo- 

*' 4. A belt of off-shore hydrography done with a steamer and extending from the 4- 
fathom curve to 8 or 10 miles from land. 

"5. Lines of steamer soundings across the lake. 

"6. Precise determinations of latitude, longitude, and azimuth at several primary 
stations; latitude being determined with a probable error in the final result of about 
one-tenth of a second, and difference of longitude with Detroit by telegraph. 

"7. Reduction of field work and construction of the maps. 

'*In some cases, on account of special difficulty or cost, the primary triangulation 
has not been carried along the lake shore. Thus on the American shore of Lake 
Huron points were determined by a combination of astronomical work and triangu- 
lation. 

'■'■ On the east and part of the west shore of Lake Michigan the positions of points 
needed for the maps were obtained by carrying lines of azimuths and latitudes south- 
ward from known points, the longitudes being computed from' these azimuths and 
latitudes. 

"In making the final map, the triangulation points are plotted by their geograph- 
ical co-ordinates, and the topographical and other details reduced from the shore 
party and hydrographical sheets. 

' ' The map when finished by the draughtsman is engraved on copper at the Engineer 
Bureau in Washington, and the charts issued are printed from this plate ; in some 
cases, however, when required immediately for the uses of navigation, the first sheets 
issued are those produced by the photo-lithographic process, or, as was the case with 
the chart of the lower part of the Detroit River, the final reduction is made and en- 
graved directly on stone, ready for printing, at the office of the Lake Survey in Detroit. 

"The field w ork for Lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Saint Clair, aud Ontario, for 
the rivers Saint Mary, Saint Clair, Detroit, and Saint Lawrence, is now completed 
Lake Erie remains to be done. 

"The final charts for Lakes Superior, Huron, and the northern part of Lake Michi- 
gan, have been completed, and are now being issued to vessels. 

"The following is a list of charts already published, with their scales aud dates of 
publication : 

Year of 
publica- 
' tion. 



K'o. 


Xame of chart. 


i Scale. 

1 
j 


1 


Lake Erie 


1-400,000 


2 


West end Lake Erie 


1-120 ono 


•^ 


Kellvs aud Bass Islands, Lake Erie 


j 1-50, 000 


4 




1 1-120,000 


5 
6 


East Xeebisb Eapids, Saint Mary's River 

Sasinaw Eiver 


1 1-15,000 

' 1-10,000 



1852 
1852 
1852 
1856 
lb54 
1867 

Saint Clair Flats 1-32, 000 , 1857 

Buffalo Harbor 1-30.000 1 1857 

Tawas Harbor, Lake Huron 1-16,000 : 1857 

Beaver Island Group. Lake Michigan 1-120, 000 ' 1855 

Eagle Harbor, Lake Superior 1-5, 000 : 1858 

Agate Hurbor, Lake Superior , \ 1-10,000 1 1858 

River S;dut Mary, No. 1 | 1-40,000 ! 1858 

Eiver Saint Mary, Xo. 2 1 1-40,000 ^ 1858 

Maunjee Bay. Lake Erie i 1-30, 000 1858 

Eagle River' Lake Superior 1-10,000 1859' 

Ontonagon Harbor. Lake Superior : 1-16, 000 i 1859 

Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron 1 1-120,000 I 1860 



THE EXGINEER SECTION. 



309 



No. 



i Year of 
Scale. publica- 



19 Thunder Bay, Lake Hnion 1-40.000 

20 Marquette Harbor, Lake Superior 1-50, 000 

21 Presque Isle and Middle Island, Lake Huron 1-40,000 1860 

22 ' Lake diiron 1-400,000 

23. Soutli end Lake Huron 1-120,000 1861 

24 Grand Island, Lake Superior 1-22,000 1862 

25 AVestend of Lake Superior ■ ; 1-32,000 1863 

26 ; Grand and Little Traverse Bays, Lake Michigan . ' 1-120, 000 18fi3 

27 ! North end of Green Bav 1-120, 000 1864 

28 Copper Harbor, Lake Superior 1-10,000 1866 

29 L'Anse and Keweenaw Bav, Lake Superior 1-30,000 1866 

30 Portage Lake and River, Lake Superior 1-30,000 1865 

31 Lake Superior. No. 1 1-400,000 1872 

32 Lake Superior, Ts'o. 2 1-400,000 1870 

33 North end of Lake Michigan . 1-400.000 1867 

34 Huron Islands. Lake Superior 1-30, OCO 1869 

35 South end of (Jre.-n Bay 1-120,000 1864 

36 Lake Superior, No. 3 1-400, 000 1873 

37 Saint Clair River 1-40, 000 1872 

38 Isle Rovale. Lake Superior 1-30,000 1872 

39 Mouth of Detroit River 1-20,000 1874 

40 Citv of Chicago 1-20, 000 1874 

41 Lake Saint Clair ; 1-50,000 1874 

42 Saint Lawrence River, No. 1 1-30, 000 i 1874 

43 Sandusky Bav, Lake Erie '■ 1-20. 000 1874 

44 , Saint Lawrence River, No. 2 : 1-30, 000 1875 

45 Saint Lawrence River, No. 3 | 1-30. 000 1875 

No, 38. Pbotograpli views of work in Galveston Harbor, Texas. Con- 
tributed by Major Howell. Exhibited in connection with models (see 
Ckiss D, IS^o. 3). 

JSTo. 39. Photographs of lake-survey instruments. Contributed by Gen- 
eral Comstock. 

No. 40. Maps of Ohio, Monongahela, and Wabash Rivers. Contributed 
by Colonel Merrill. 

The five sheets of the general survey of the Ohio are taken from the office files, and 
are fair samples of the different sections of the river, showing how it changes in width 
and character as it ajDproaches the Mississippi. 

The local profile of the Ohio from Pittsburgh to Wheeling has been prepared from 
the special surveys made during the last two years with a view to selecting the sites 
for movable dams {barrages mobiles) on this portion of the river, where the surface 
slope is greatest and the supply of water the least. 

The special surveys at Horsetail, Buffington Island, Warsaw, and Cumberland Island axe 
samples of the local maps that are always prepared before any work of improvement 
is undertaken. At Horsetail the work actually performed consisted in removing heavy 
bowlders from the channel. This was done by horses drawing a pair of large wheels, 
such as are used for transporting boilers and heavy pieces of machinery. Chains were 
passed under the stones by men standing in the water. The stones were then lifted 
by means of screws, and afterwards hauled ashore and deposited on the banks. This 
work was done in August, 187-2, when the de[)th of water at Horsetail was about 2 
feet. Over five hundred rocks were removed, some of which contained over a cubic 
yard. At Buffington Island the riprap dam from the Ohio shore to the island was raised 
to a height of 8 feet above low Avater, the old longitudinal dike in the Virginia chan- 
nel was repaired and raised, the cross-dike was removed, and a straight channel along 
the dike was dredged through the bar. This work was finished in 1875, and has thus . 
far proved a complete success. The Warsaio map shows a dike built at this place in 
1'571. It has improved the channel so much that boats can always pass Warsaw Bar 
when they can get over the others above and below it. If necessary, a further im- 
provement can be made by raising and lengthening the dike. The Cumberland Island 
sheet represents the state of affairs iu 1871, at which date no work had been done on 



3IO INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

the flam since 1853. Since the survey was made the gap in the clam has been closed, 
and the dam has been extended to the head of Cumberland Island. The work has 
been successful in making the dam stand the water pressure, but it has been a failure 
from other causes. The original object of building this dam, which was begun in 
1833, was to make a connection between the Ohio and the Cumberland at Smithland, 
in order to improve the access to the Cumberland, and for the local benefit of Smith- 
land, then an important shipping point. The reason why the project is a practical 
failure is that the chute or channel at the head of the island is invariably filled 
with sediment at high water, and it takes some time after the river has got low for 
the water forced over by the dam to cut a new channel through the deposits left in 
the chute by the previous high water. The result is that for two or three weeks, more 
or less, after the lowr water season has begun, there is less water at Cumberland Island 
than anywhere else in that section of the river, and navigation is subject to a serious 
temporary inconvenience. The dam will probably be removed. 

The method of transporting coal on the Ohio is shown on a special sheet. A coal boat 
is a rectangular box with square ends, from 160 to 170 feet long, and 26 feet wide. It 
has a heavy bottom but light sides, and it is usually broken up when it reaches its 
destination and has been emptied. A coal barge is rectangular in plan, but has scow 
bows at each end. The sides are solidly built of 8-inch timbers. Its length is about 130 
feet, and its width from 24 to 2.5 feet. Coal barges when emptied are towed back to 
the mines and refilled, continuing in use until worn out. Coal boats draw 7-^ feet and 
coal barges 6 feet. 

Whenever the river rises sufficiently to permit coal boats or barges to descend, 
they are made up into fleets, each of which is pushed down-stream by a powerful 
stern-wheel tow-boat, placed at the rear of the fleet. The average tow from Pitts- 
burgh to Louisville is ten barges — at Louisville tows for the lower market are usu- 
ally doubled. Large tow-boats have taken from Louisville to New Orleans 560,000 
bushels of coal (22,000 tons) in one fleet. 

The Walash Eiver maps are sam^jles of the special surveys made on this river with 
a view to its improvement. At Grand Chain a channel 2,300 feet long and 100 feet 
wide was excavated through the rock bar as indicated on the map. At Coffee Island 
a new channel was excavated behind the island; the material excavated at both 
places being indurated clay crossed by occasional veins of tough limestone. The 
navigation on the Wabash is small in amount, and the steamboats themselves are 
small. Should its navigation increase, the narrow channels now provided can easily 
be widened. It is a peculiarity of the Wabash that the great majority of its bars 
consist of rock in place. 

The hydrographs included in the atlas are sam^^les taken from the office files and 
need no explanation.-:— Colonel Merrill. 

Nos. 41 to 74. — Maps, drawings, and photographs from the United 
States geographical surveys west of the one hundredth meridian. 
First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, in charge. 

This survey was organized in 1871, under the direction of Brig. Gen. A. A. Hum- 
phreys, Chief of Engineers, with the approval of the honorable the Secretary of War. 
The immediate charge of the work was assigned to Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps 
of Engineers, at this date still serving. The yearly operations of the work are car- 
ried on in pursuance of acts of Congress and upon projects submitted by the officer in 
charge and approved by the proper authorities. 

The primary object of the survey is the gathering of topographical data for a map 
of the regions traversed west of the one hundredth meridian of longitude, much of 
which has heretofore remained a terra incognila. 

This includes the establishment of primary geographical positions by astronomical 
and geodetic methods ; the determination by trigonometric data of the various mount- 
ain systems, vallej's and plains, together with hypsometric observations for the de- 
terminatio)! of altitudes. 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 3 I I 

Incidental to the main purpose, a study of geological formations, examinations, 
and collections of living and extinct fauna and flora, investigations of resources 
(wood, water, grass, agricultural capacity and products), location and extent of 
precious and economic minerals, climatic influences, selection of routes for military 
and other purposes, water supply for purposes of irrigation, condition of mining and 
other interests, &c., have received attention, and have been, or will he, reported 
upon in the published results. A glance at the progress map will show the location 
and extent of the regions entered, representing with a close degree of approximation, 
as already mapped, 295,000 square miles in California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Ari- 
zona, New Mexico, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana. A more detailed descpption 
of Lieutenant Wheeler's exhibit as a whole will be found in the Appendix. 
No. 41. Progress map. 
No. 42. Triangulation map. 
No. 43. Wall map. 
No. 44. Wall map. 
No. 45. Wall maps. 

No. 46. Original atlas sheets (Nos. 50, 59, 66, 67, 75, 76, 83, 61 (B), 69 (D), in frames.) 
No. 47. Atlas sheets. 

Legend sheets. 

Basin map. 

Sheets of conventional signs — the one now in use. 

Atlas (rectangle sheets) Nos. 49, 50, 57, 58, 59, 65, 66, 67, 75, 76, 83, 61 (B), 69 
(D), 61 (C) ; also several sheets produced by crayon process. 
No. 48. Atlas geological sheets. 
No. 49. Photographic copies of atlas maps on reduced scales. 

PHOTOGRAPHS. 

Landscape views (in frames). 

No. 50. Apache scouts in the White Mountains, Arizona. 

No. 51. Apache Lake, White Mountains, Arizona. 

No. 52. Black Canon, Colorado River. 

No. 53. Black Canon, Colorado River. 

No. 54. Alpine Lake, in the Sierras, California. 

No. 55. Canon de Chelle, New Mexico. Walls 1,200 feet in height. 

No. 56. Section of Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico. 

No. 57. Shoshone Falls, Snake River, Idaho. 

No. 58. View in Conejos Valley, Colorado. 

No. 59. Lost Lakes ''Divide" of Rio Grande and San Juan Rivers, Colorado. 

No. 60. Beaver Lake, Conejos Caiion, Colorado. 

No. 61. Grand Canon of the Colorado. View from 3,000 feet above river bed. 

No. 62. Mountain Park, Conejos Canon, Colorado. 

No. 63. Headlands of the Colorado, near mouth of Paria Creek. 

Water-color drawings. 

No. 64. Cooley's Park, near Camp Apache, Arizona Territory. 

No. 65. Cachina, or rain-dance, Zuni Indians, New Mexico. 

No. 66. Navajo Indians at home. 

No. 67. Cactus (Cereus giganteus) grove. Southern Arizona. 

No. 68. Water olla (^ size), from Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico. 

No. 69. Stone arrow-heads (natural size), from ancient ruins in New Mexico. 

No. 70. Album of fifty views, selected from those taken in the years 1871, 1872, 1873, 

1874. 
No. 71. Album of twenty-five selected views. 

No. 72. One hundred and forty-four stereoscopic views in stereoscope. 
No. 73. One hundred stereoscopic views in box. 
No. 74. Twelve transparencies of landscape subjects. 



312 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

JS'os. 75 to 79, inclusive. Drawings of the United States snag-boat J. 
N. Macomb, designed by and built under the direction of Maj. Charles 
E. Suter, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. Contributor, Major Suter. 
(See also model, Class I, Ko. 20.) 

This boat was selected as being the type of the latest and most improved style of 
large snag-boats adopted by the Government in the improvement of our western rivers- 
She differs from those that preceded her, by being single instead of double hulled, 
and in being made of iron instead of wood. She is also 20 feet longer. These changes 
allowed a much stronger and more substantial boat to be constructed on a much less 
draught of water than the old ones, and facilitated a better and more economical ar- 
rangement of the machinery. The boat has been tested by eighteen months' service, 
^nd has proved fully satisfactory. 

The following dimensions and statistics embrace the main points of interest : 

Hull built in Cincinnati in 1873 and 1874. 

Machinery built in Saint Louis and Cincinnati. 

Total cost of boat, .$180,000. 

Monthly expense of rnuuiug, $3,500. 

Carries a crew of thirty-eight officers and men. 

DIMENSIONS. 

Feet. In. 

Length between perpendiculars 175 

Length over all 177J 

Beam on deck 62 

Beam extreme (over guards) *. 5^0 1\ 

Height of hull over all .» 8 

Sheer (reversed each way from center) 2 

Length of well on deck from stems 64 llf 

Width (least) of well on deck 9 10 

Draught, loaded 3 \\ 

Displacement, in tons of 2,000 pounds 893 

MACHINERY. 

Mam engines. — Two high-pressure, non-condensing. Cylinders, 26tV inches diame- 
ter, stroke 6 feet. Indicated horse-power of engines, 556.27. 

These engines drive two water-wheels 24 feet in diameter, at a rate of 18.4 revolu- 
tions per minute, giving a speed in still water of 8.37 miles per hour. 

Boilers. — Five, cylindrical, externally fired. Diameter of shells, 42 inches. Length 
of shells, 24 feet 1^ inches. 

Flues.— Four in each boiler. Outside diameter, 10 inches. Steam drum (one), and 
mud drums (two). Pressure of steam carried, 140 pounds, by gauge. 

Fuel burned per hour (maximum). — Coal (bituminous), 2,439 pounds. 

Boilers and steam pipes covered with '* Salamander" asbestos felting. 

Pumping-engine.—^tesbva. cylinder, 10 inches diameter, 20 inches stroke. Heaters 
.(two), 6 feet long 34 inches diameter. Water heated by exhaust steam. Hand-pump, 
«team fire-x^ump, steam boiler feeder for nigger boiler, and steam siphons in addition 
to the above. 

Hoisiing-engines.—CyWndeTS (two) coupled at right angles. Diameter of cylinders, 
10 inches; stroke, 15 inches; capacity of hoisting purchase (estimated dead lift), 75 
tons. 

Forward capstans. — Four in number, each pair driven by an engine located in the 
hold. Capstans each take in 38 feet of line per minute, with a pull of 15 tons. 

After capstans.— Two in number, each driven by an engine in the hold. 

Saw-engines.— Two in number, located in hold. Forward saw: steam cylinder, 6 
inches diameter,^30 iuches"stroke, direct^ttachment to saw. After saw : steam cylin- 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 



zn 



<ier, 6 inches diameter, 14 inches stroke ; -works the saw by means of a rocker. Stroke 
of saw, 40 inches. 

Method of operating. — The bow of the boat is forked for a length of 65 feet, and the 
well thus formed has a width varying from 9 feet 10 inches aft to 35 feet forward. 
Near the bow the well is spanned at the water's edge by a massive collection of heavy 
timbers sheathed with iron. These timbers, known as the butting beam, extend in 
one length from out to out of the boat tying the two forks together and furnishing a 
broad working jDlatform, Over the beam stands a heavy pair of iron shears, capable 
of lifting '200 tons, and back of the shear legs come the steam capstans, two on each 
fork of the hull. At the end of the well, raised on massive iron frames, is the iron 
hoisting-drum, by which the large hauling or hoisting chain is wound in, and two 
rollers — the foward one fixed or swinging at will, while the after one travels on rails — 
sjiau the well and form a cradle or log way to receive the snags when they have been 
pulled up over the butting beam. One steam-saw works out through a slot in the 
boat's side in line with the front of the butting beam, the other one, by means of a 
detachable rocking arm, works above deck in line with the axis of the forward roller. 
Over the stems, and forming a bight between them, hangs a If-inch stayed link chain, 
which can be raised or lowered at pleasure, and by means of which snags under the 
surface of the water are grappled and raised on to the beam. 

Snags almost invariably point downstream. They are inclined at various angles, 
depending upon their length and the depth of water, and their roots are usually im- 
bedded, often A'ery solidly, in the sand or mud of the bottom. The boat, headed up- 
stream, slowly approaches the snag from below, and the end of it, being raised on to 
the beam, is secured with lines, which are taken to the capstans and wound in, the 
boat still coming ahead if possible. If the tree be large and heavy the hoisting chain 
8 made fast and hauied in, the capstans being reserved for light lifts and the various 
maneuvers required to guide the heavy tree trunk, preventing it from rolling about and 
smashing the upper works, &c. When knots and limbs are met with, they are sawed 
or broken off, or they are lifted clear of the beam with the shears. As the tree comes 
in, it is cut otf by the saws at every 20 or 30 feet of its length, the pieces being dropped 
into the well and allowed [to float aw^ay. Finally the root is reached and is jjulled 
up close to the face of the butting beam, the trunk of the tree resting on the rollers. 
The root is then sawed otf and dropped in some deep hole or out-of-the-way place, and 
the trunk sawed up into short pieces. If these will not float they are dropped with 
the stump, otherwise they go into the well and float off. In all these oi)erations, the 
boat herself assists, being moved and guided by the main engines and water-wheels, 
which are quite separate and distinct. In case a simple pull is insufficient to dislodge 
a snag, various expedients are resorted to, especially surging the boat backward and 
forward, at the same time winding in or out the hoisting-chain. This severe usage 
proved too heavy for chains made of 2 and 2^ inch iron, but the 2i-inch chain used on 
the Macomb has not been broken as yet. 

In case these comparatively mild expedients fail to dislodge an obstinate customer, 
chains and lines are cast off, the forecastle deck cleared for action, and the boat, drop- 
ping back 300 or 400 yards, runs at the snag as hard as her engines can drive her. 
The blow is received upon the face of the butting beam, which requires to be exceed- 
ingly well fastened, as well as heavily iron-plated, to stand these tremendous shocks. 
Blow after blow is thus given, from above as well as from below, from the right and 
from the left, until finally the root is torn out of its muddy bed, and the snag is then 
pulled aboard and disposed of 

In this violent exercise a heavy boat weighing nearly 900 tons, and moving at a 
rate of at least 5 mile* an hgur, is suddenly brought to rest within a space of a few 
inches, the striking force amounting to 13,000,000 foot-pounds. These tremendous 
shocks, combined with the great strains produced by the heavy weights which are con- 
stantly lifted on and off the head, require, as may be imagined, a very solid construc- 
tion, and the combination of lightness and strength of hull with powerful machinery 



3H 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



and working appliances has required a great many years of work and many experi- 
ments in construction to give us boats even as good as the one here described . 

To remove and cut up a large snag from thirty minutes to an hour is usually re- 
quired, though, in cases of unusual difficulty, several hours or even days are required 
for the purpose. 

The amount of work done depends, of course, largely on the plentifiiluess with which 
snags are met with. When they are only found at long intervals, the count is'^f 
course much reduced, but taking together the labor of ail the boats engaged in this 
work, the number of snags removed every year amounts to many thousands. Since 
the Macomb was built she has had 267 working days, and her record for that time is 
given herewith. — Major Sutee. 

0})eration of ike snag-hoat J. JSf. Macomb. 





OD 


03 


!« 


OS 


-U 






>J • 


fcJO 





ffl 




s 




i?a 


CO 


05 m 


g 


"C'd 


1—1 


!N"ame of river. 




^1 


a 




13 a 
. ® S 






^ 


r=l ^ 




rO 


^ OS 


.£3 






S 






s-S 


s 




o.a 


E3 


®<M 




f3 p. 


5 




^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


Mississippi 

Missouri 


ii 


13 


249.6 






) 


117 


992 


16, 199. 7 


1,913 


30 


> 4,4631 


Arkansas 


139 


1, 208 


19, 202. 


2,378 


14 


s 






Total 


267 


2,213 


35, 651. 3 


4,291 


44 


4, 463^ 



Nos. 80, 81, 82. Photograi)hs of snag-boat described above. Contribu- 
tor, Major S liter. 

No. 83. Details of pumping-apparatus, bins for holding sand, &c., of 
the United States dredging- steamer Henry Burden, employed on the 
Savannah River improvement, 1874-'75. , Designed by Lieut. Col. Q. A. 
Gillmore, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. Con- 
tributor, General Gillmore. 

The following description of the dredging steamer and apparatus is taken from 
General Gil hnore's report for 1872: 

The steamer, originally built for carrying passengers and light freight, is 132 feet 
long on the keel, 24^ feet broad on the beam, and when ballasted on an even keel 
draws about 5^ feet of water. She was modeled with a view to speed, and carries 
only 100 tons on a draught of 7 feet, is strongly built, with side wheels and short 
guards, has one low pressure engine of 1*20 horse-power, and ample boiler capacity. 
Although the most suitable boat for the purpose that could be chartered at the time, 
she is not exactly adapted to the work required of her, on account of her compara- 
tively deep draught and small carrying capacity, which renders it impossible to pros- 
ecute work continuously during the period of low water. A boat with more beam, 
and a fuller model fore and aft under the water-line, would have been better. 

The pump, a No. 9 centrifugal-drainage pump of the Andrews patent, is located 
on the main deck, aft, about 35 feet from the stern-post. Its main suction and dis- 
charge openings are each 9 inches in diameter. To the suct^n-opening there are 
connected, by a two-way branch-pipe, two 6-inch suction-pipes, instead of one 9-inch, 
as usual, the object being, in dredging on the Saint John's bar, not only to work on 
both sides of the boat simultaneously, but to render the necessary handling of the 
pipes as easy and prompt as possible. There is, on the other hand, considerable dis- 
advantage in operating with two suction-pipes instead of one, on account of the 



THE ENGINEER SECTION: 3 i 5 

greater amount of friction for an equivalent suction capacity, for while a 9-incli pipe 
has an area of only 81 circular inches, t wo 6-inch pipes have an aggregate area of only 
72 circular inches. The frictional surface is therefore increased as 27 to 36, making 
the disadvantage from this cause as 2 to 3. The discharge of materials is made through 
a 9-inch pipe branching in a two-way pipe into two 6-inch discharge-pipes. 

It was necessary also to encounter another disadvantage by using severals bends, 
of which there were two in each of the suction-pipes, one in the mam discharge-pipe, 
one in one of the 6-inch branch discharge-pipes, and two in the other, those in the 
suction being each one-eighth of a circle and those in the discharge one-fourth of a 
circle each. 

These bends reduced the delivery at the rate of 10 per cent, for each turn of 90'^ 
and about 6 per cent, for each turn of 45°, these reductions being calculated for each 
case upon the quantity passing the preceding bend. Thus the first one-eighth bend in 
the suction reduces the quantity to 94 per cent., the second to 88 per cent., and the one- 
fourth bend in the main discharge to 79 per cent., one-half of which is reduced by one 
bend in one of the branch discharge-pipes to 36 per cent., and the other half by two 
bends in its discharge-pipe to 31 per cent., leaving for the net delivery 67 per cent, 
of the theoretical quantity pumped. 

The disadvantages, therefore, under which the apparatus labored, may be briefly 
summarized as follows : 

Ist. The loss by friction, due to the use of two 6-inch instead of one 9-inch suction- 
pipe, is increased 50 per cent. 

2d. The loss by friction due to the use of suction-pipes three times as long as the 
height to which the material is to be raised. 

3d. The loss of 33 per cent, in the theoretical quantity pumped up by bends in the 
suction and discharge |)ipe8. 

As the pump will not charge itself, the charge is supplied by a small donkey-pump, 
through a hole made in the top for that purpose. The charge is retained while turn- 
ing the boat on the inside of the bar, and during the night, and at other intervals 
when work is temporarily suspended, by closing the side-valve in each of the suction- 
pipes, where it passes over the side of the vessel. 

The engine used to drive the pump consists of two cylinders connected upon one 
crank, at right angles to each other, and 10 inches in diameter by 10 inches stroke 
each. Steam is conveyed from the steamer's boiler to the pump-engine through a 3- 
inch iron pipe, the usual pressure carried upon the boiler being about 25 pounds to 
the square inch. This pressure develops about 26 useful horse-power, after deduct- 
ing 25 per cent, for friction of engine and difference of pressure in the cylinder and 
boiler, and gives a speed of about 180 revolutions per minute to the engine-shaft. On 
this shaft is a pulley 42 inches in diameter, carrying a rubber belt 12 inches wide, 
communicating the power to the pump-shaft through a i>ulley 24 inches in diameter, 
thus giving the pump-disk and wings about 315 revolutions per minute. This speed 
in the No. 9 pump is equal to the work of raising 3,000 gallons of clear water per min- 
ute 30 feet high, through a 9-inch straight vertical pipe. 

The actual height raised above the surface of the water on the Saint John's bar 
varies with the amount of sand taken on board, from 10 to 11 feet, but as the pipes 
are 50 feet long, with bends, and are in two branches instead of one, and as a mixture 
of sand and water is heavier and more impeded by friction than clear water, the loss 
by friction, from all these causes combined, reduces the useful work of the pump con- 
siderably below the average attainable under more favorable conditions. For these 
reasons, although 200 revolutions of the pump-disk per minute will easily raise 3,000 
gallons of clear water 12 feet high through a vertical 9-inch pipe, 300 revolutions are 
required to raise 2,500 gallons of sand and water 11 feet high through two inclined 
suction-pipes, having two turns each, discharged through a pipe having one turn. 

To prevent the ends of the suction-pipes being lifted off the bottom by the piloting 
of the boat, a portion of each pipe is made flexible, being composed of 6-inch rubber 



3l6 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

hose stretched over a spiral spring. In addition, the ends are loaded with an iron 
frame or drag, each weighing abont 20C poiinds, which is intended to move along flat 
upon the bottom during the operation of dredging. To the under surface of this frame, 
directly below the mouth of the pipe, a number of teeth or knives are attached to stir 
up the sand and aid its entrance into the pipe. 

A chain attached to each drag, and leading to the deck of the steamer on either 
side, takes the strain from the pipe when the drag is down and the steamer in motion. 
Another chain runs along the pipe, and is attached to all the flanges. 

Tackles are arranged for lifting the pipes from the bottom when not dredging, or 
when pumping clear w^ater, to discharge the sand from the bins. 

For receiving the sand, bins are located along the main deck, fore and aft, on each 
side of the steamer's engine, each being provided with a sliding gate over the steam- 
er's side, which can be opened and closed at pleasure. The bins are filled from two 
troughs, one from each branch of the discharge-pipe, provided at suitable intervals 
with valves or gates, so that the load can be distributed to the bins wherever de- 
sired. 

The proportion of sand that can be pumped depends greatly upon its syjecific grav 
ity and degree of fineness. The calcareous and argillaceous sands floAv more freely 
than the silicious, and fine sand is less liable to choke the pipe than those that are 
coarse. When working at high speed, 50 to 55 per cent, of sand can easily be raised 
through a straight, vertical pipe, giving for every 10 cubic yards of material dis- 
charged 5 to 5^ cubic yards of compact sand. 

With the appliances used upon the Saint John's bar, and in consequence of the 
swell, which frequently lifted the ends of the suction-pipes from the bottom, the pro- 
portion of sand seldom exceeded 45 per cent., generally ranging from 30 to 35 per 
cent., when working under the most favorable conditions. In pumping 2,500 gallons, 
or 12.60 cubic yards, of sand and water per minute, we would therefore get from 3.7 
to 4.3 cubic yards of sand. During the early stages of the work, before the teeth un- 
der the drags had been properly arranged to aid the flow of sand into the pipes, the 
yield was considerably below this average, not often greatly exceeding and frequently 
falling below 2 cubic yards of sand per minute during the time actually occupied in 
punfping. At a later period much better results were obtained. 

The manner of conducting the dredging may be briefly described as follows : 

The steamer, with the suction-pipes up, first crosses the bar to the outside, then 
turns around and steams slowly in over the bar, with just sufficient speed to maintain 
steerage-way, lowering the pipes and starting the pump as soon as the outer edge o* 
the bar is reached. Arriving on the inside the pump is stopped, the pipes raised, and 
the steamer turned around again. She then crosses slowly to the outside, pumping 
as before, and the quantity of sand discharged into the bins, during these two pas- 
sages over the bar, is a load, whether great or small. While the steamer is turning 
around on the outside, preparatory to taking in another load, the side-gates to the 
bins are opened, the suction-pipes are raised from the bottom, and the pump is run at 
full speed on clear water. By this means, assisted to some extent, where necessary, 
by men in the bins, with hoes, the sand is all discharged into deep water by the tim® 
the steamer again reaches the outer edge of the bar, when the dredging is resumed. 

The time required to turn the steamer twice is twelve to thirteen minutes, of which 
only six to six and a half minutes, or the time occupied in making the turn on the 
inside, is lost, as neither the work of dredging the sand nor discharging it from the 
bins is in progress during that interval. 

1^0, 84. Chart of Matagorda Bay. ^ Contributed by Cap t. C. W. Howell, 
Corps of Eugineers, brevet maior, U. S. A. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 3 1 7 



Class B. 
geodetic, and meteoroloaical instruments. 

(Exhibited to show the range aud quality of instrumental work performed by En- 
gineer officers.) 

These instruments are collected from the office of the Lake Survey, 
from the office of the Geographical Survej^ west of the One hundredth 
Meridian, and from the School of Submarine Mining and Military Engi- 
neering at Willets Point, New York. 

A. — Astronomical Instruments. 

No. 1. Astronomical transit with broken telescope. Contributed by 
Major Comstock, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 
Pistor & Martins, Berlin. 

Focal length, 24 inches ; diameter of object glass, 2^ inches ; the horizontal limit 
reads to 10 " ; the finding circles to 1 ' ; can be used as a transit or zenith telescope. 

No. 2. Combined transit. Contributed by Lieutenant Wheeler, Corps 
of Engineers. Made by Wurdeman, Washington. 

Focal length, 32;^ inches ; clear aperture, 2|^ inches ; two finding circles, 4 inches 

diameter ; one setting circle, 5 inches diameter ; one Y has a horizontal and the other 
a vertical micrometer motion. 

No. 3. Combined transit. Contributed by Major Abbot, Corps of En- 
gineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. Made by Wurdeman. Same 
as No. 2, except the following dimensions: 

Focal length, 30^ inches; clear aperture, 2^ inches j setting circle, 6^ inches ; find- 
ing circles, 4 inches. 

No. 4. Astronomical transit. Contributed by Major Abbot, Corps of 
Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. Stackpole & Bro., New 
York. 

Focal length, 24| inches ; one finding circle, 6 inches diameter ; direct and diagonal 
eye-piece. 

No. 5. Portable astronomical telescope. Contributed by Major Abbot, 
Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, LT. S. A. 

Focal length"^ about 33. inches; aperture, 3-,% inches. 

Motions in altitude and azimuth by endless screws, attached to long handles. 

No. 6. Sextant, No. 1668, Stackpole & Bro., New York. Contributed by 
Major Abbot, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 

Vernier reacts to 10". 

No. 7. Reflecting circle. Contributed by Major Abbot, Corps of Engi- 
neers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. Gambey, Paris. 

Limb and vernier read to 20' and 20", respectively. 



3l8 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

No. 8. Electro-magnetic chronograph. Contributed by Major Gomstock, 
Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. Bond & Son, 
London. 

The motive power employed is electro-magnetism. The rate of motion is regulated 
by tlie conical pendulum, which, either makes and breaks the current or does not make 
it according to its spur. The arrangement of the different parts is as follows: To the 
base board is attached an electro-magnet (horseshoe), which is stationary; above it 
is its armature, which consists of two cross-bars at right angles, and is fastened to a 
vertical revolving shaft, which at its upper extremity has projecting from it nearly 
at a right angle a slotted arm, which engages the spindle projecting from the ball of 
the pendulum near its upper extremity; the armature shaft is supported by a collar, 
in which it turns, but from which it is perfectly insulated; from this collar project 
horizontally four stationary arms, one of Avhich is connected with one extremity 
of the coil about the magnet; the other extremity of the wire leads to the battery; 
the pendulum is connected through its supports with the other pole of the bat- 
tery. From the spindle below the pendulum ball projects a small spiral spring, 
which, by coming in contact with the stationary arms, makes the circuit. The ar- 
rangement of the pendulum and armature is such that when the spiral spring makes 
the circuit the ends of the armature will be near to and approaching the ends of the 
magnet. When the current is made the magnet attracts the armature shaft and car- 
ries the pendulum spring by the stationary arm and breaks the circuit; the pendulum 
under the impetus it has received moves on making the circuit on the next arm, &c. 

Should the motion become too rapid, the pendulum is carried so far out from i^,s 
axis of rotation that the spring does not work the arm, no current is made, and the 
motion is checked. 

When the chronometer is connected with the chronograph, the connection is so 
made, by means of a double relay, that the breaking of the chronometer every second 
will close the driving circuit at a time when one of the arms of the armature is ap- 
proaching the poles of the magnet; but in advance of the closing of the circuit by 
the ordinary circuit-closer is the spiral spring and stationary arm, so that if the rate 
of motion is too slow, it will be accelerated and kept uniform. 

No. 9. Personal equation instrument. Contributed by Lieutenant 
Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, consisting of; 1, artificial transit aj)- 
paratus ; 2, chronograph, break-circuit chronometer, key -board, &c. 

The automatic transit apparatus is the design of Dr. F. Kampf, astronomical assist- 
ant to Lieutenant Wheeler. 

No. 10. Geodetic instruments. Theodolite No. 2, Troughton & Sims, 
London. Contributed by General Comstock. 

Eepeating instrument. Horizontal limb, 12 inches diameter; verticallimb, 12inche8 
diameter; horizontal limb is graduated to 5" and re^d to \" by 2 reading. Vertical 
limb graduated to 5' and read to 5" by verniers. 

No. 11. Theodolite No. 66. Contributed by Major Abbot, Corps of En- 
gineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. Wurdoman. 

Repeating instrument. Focal length, 14| inches; diameter of horizontal limb, ^K: 
inches ; no vertical limb. Horizontal limb graduated to 5', read by verniers to 5'' ; il- 
luminating axis. ' 

No. 12. Theodolite No. 1324, Pistor & Martins, Berlin. Contributed by 
Major Comstock, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 

Non-repeating. The telescope is mounted outside the Ys> and has a focal length of 9-J 
inches. Diameter of horizontal and vertical limbs, 5^ inches. Both limbs are graduated 
to 10' and read directly to 10" by reading microscopes, and by estimation to 2". The in 
strument has a vertical setting circle graduated to 5°. 



THE EXGINEER SECTION. 3 I 9 

]^o. 13. Surv^e^ or's or railroad transit ^o. 1585, Stackpole & Bro., Xew 
York. Contributed by Major Abbot, Corps of Engineers, brevet 
major-general, U. S. A. 

liJo. 14. Topographical or '^ meandering" transit l^o. 4950, Young & 
Sons, Philadelphia. Contributed by Lieutenant Wheeler, Corps of En- 
gineers. 

Three and one-half inch limb; reads to 1'. Has alight tripod, and is carried from 
point to point by a man on horseback with the feet of the tripod resting in a lance 
socket. 

^o. 14 {CI), Triangulation and azimuth instrument. Contributor, Lieu- 
tenant Wheeler. 

Ko. 15. Level No. 1628, Stackpole & Brother, New York, and target. 
Contributed by Major Abbot, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-gen- 
eral, U. S. A. 

No. 16. Gradienter No. 9. Contributed by Major Abbot, Corps of En- 
gineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 

Vertical limb ; reads to 1 minute. Tangent screw has a micrometer head, by which 
a closer reading may be taken. 

No. 17. Surveyor's compass. 

No. 18. Binocular field -glass. 

No. 19. Large spy-glass. 

No. 20. Small spy-glass. 

No. 21. Surveyor's chain. 

No. 22. Pocket-sextant. 

No. 23. Hand-level. 

No. 24. Surveyor's level. 

No. 25. Prismatic compass. 

No. 26. Protractor, Abbot's. 

No. 27. Tape, measuring. 

Nos. 17 to 27, inclusive, contributed by General Abbot. 

Meteorological Instruments. 

No. 28. Theodolite magnetometer for determining the intensity and di- 
rection of magnetic currents. Contributed by General Abbot. 

The needle of this instrument is a small telescopic tube of steel, magnetized, and 
its direction is ascertained by bringing its line of coUimation in coincidence with that 
of the theodolite telescope by moving the latter, and then reading the horizontal limb. 
For a full description of the instrument and its use, see papers of the Essayons Club, 
Corps of Engineers, No. — , by Capt. C. W. Raymond. 

No. 29. Dip circle, large. Contributed by Lieutenant Wheeler, Corps 
of Engineers. 

No. 30. Dip circle, small. 

No. 31. Mountain barometer cistern, with stand. 

No. 32. Hygrometers, set. Contributed by Lieutenant Wheeler. 

No. 33. Maximum and minimum thermometer. Contributed by Lieu- 
tenant Wheeler. 



320 " INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

No. 34. Aneroid barometer, with scale of altitudes. Contributed by 

Lieuteuant Wheeler. 
No. 35. Aneroid barometer. Contributed by Major Abbot, Corps of 

Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 
No. 36. Cistern barometer. Contributed by General Abbot. 
No. 37. Deep-sea thermometer. Contributed by Major Comstock, Corps 

of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 

Maximum and minimum. This instrument, for measuring past extremes of heat and 
cold and present temperatures, consists of a glass tube bent in the form of a siphon, 
tTie ends terminating in bulbs, one of which is considerably lower and much larger 
than the other. The lower part of the siphon is filled with mercury, while the re" 
mainder of the tube — the larger bulb and about one-third of the small bulb — are filled 
with rectified alcohol. The remaining space in the small bulb is filled with highly 
compressed air, which acts as a spring to force the mercury down the branch con- 
nected with the small bulb and up the other when the volume of the alcohol is dimin- 
ished by a lowering of the temperature. A steel index inclosed in glass moves in each 
limb of the siphon. The two indices are terminated at top and bottom with glass 
ends to enable them to move with the least friction possible and to prevent the mer- 
cury from passing them. The indices areadjustedby meansof a small magnet. While 
in use for sounding, the thermometer is inclosed in a copper case, perforated at top 
and bottom, for protection. 

No. 38. Model of triangulation station as used in the Lake Survey. Con- 
tributor, General Abbot. 

This consists of a tall tripod, surrounded by a four-sided pyramid, both of poles 
roughly fastened together. They are entirely separate, the inner one supporting the 
instrument in use, and the outer the weight of the observers, the force of wind, 
&c. 

No. 39. Odometer. Contributed by General Abbot. 
No. 40. Pocket thermometer. Contributor, Lieutenant Wheeler. 
No. 41. Implement box (meteorological). Contributed by Lieutenant 
Wheeler. 

Cl ASS C. 

TORPEDOES, BATTERIES, ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

All the contributions to this class are by Maj. H. L. Abbot, Corps 
of Engineers, brevet major-general, \5. S. A. 

The torpedo system here partly exhibited is that devised by General Abbot, and 
adopted by the War Department for sea-coast defense. 

It is operated by electricity either on open or closed circuit, as desired. 

The mines, in groups of three, may be exploded, or be rendered automatically de- 
structive or inert at pleasure. 

They are flanked by the guns of the fort from which they are served, and any dis- 
turbance of the torpedoes or cutting of the cables draws an automatic fire from the 
guns. 

An injury to the system at once becomes known by simple electrical tests, which 
\lso indicate its nature and locus. 



THE EXGINEER SECTION. 



321 



The United States Engiueer troops are trained to practically apply this torpedo 

system to the defense of harbors and rivers ; the school of application being at Wil- 

lets Point, Xew York Harbor. 

No. 1. Tank coutiTming models of torpedoes afloat, showing the relations of the dif- 
ferent parts to each other. Want of space contracts unduly the horizontal di- 
mensions of this relation. Models were made by Sergeant Nolty, Engineer Bat- 
talion. 

No. 2. Tank coutainiug models of an iron crate (50 by 10 by 10 feet), and a ring, 
which have been successfully used at the school of submarine mining at Willets 
Point, New York, in experiments made to determine the nature, amount, and 
laws of transmission of forces developed by the explosion of submarine mines. 
The construction of the crate merits attention, being so contrived that the planes 

of its different parts all pass through the center of the charge, thus presenting a 

simple knife-edge to the force of the explosion. Gauges placed at the different 

corners reuister the pressures at the instant of explosion. 
The crate was handled by two derricks placed upon a schooner, and was supported 

at the desired depth by buoys, or, in some cases, tv^as allowed to rest upon the bot- 
tom. 
The effects of numerous charges, varying from 5 to 100 pounds of dynamite No. 1, 

were successfully measured by this ceate. The final charge left it in the condition 

shown in an accompanying photograph. 

No. 3. Box containing signal battery — Leclanche for open, and bichromate of potash 
for closed, circuits. 

No. 4. Box containing 10 Leclanche cells, of x^attern adopted for firing battery. 

No. 5. Leclanche testing battery — compact, portable form. 

No. 6. Operating box, containing apparatus for controlling and testing the mines 
(details not exhibited). 

No. 7. Box of resistance coils, for use with powerful currents. 

No. 8. Alarum, &c. (details not shown). 

No. 9. Bradley galvanometer, adopted for rough testing. 

No. 10. Siemens universal galvanometer, adopted for fine testing. 

No. 11. Bridge rheostat, for measurement of electrical resistances, &c. 

No. 12. Eeversing key, devised by General Abbot, for measurements which include the 
earth as part of the circuit. 

No. 13. Buoyant torpedo (model lb73), with its anchor. 

When the river current is feeble, the insulated cable may take the place of the an- 
choring chain, as here exhibited. This mine contains the explosive charge, fuzes, and 

circuit closer or breaker (details not shown) comj)lete. 

No. 14. Buoyant torpedo, model 1875, with its anchor. 

A mooring of wire rope, as used in strong currents, is here exhibited. Contents of 

mine like No. 13. 

No. 15. Ground torpedo for shallow channels. 

Loaded, it weighs 500 pounds, and forms an anchor for the circuit-closer buoy, which 
rides above it. 

No. 16. Mine and detached circuit-closer buoy, as arranged to foil operations by ves- 
sels protected by outriggers. 
The outrigger passing over the torpedo strikes the detached buoy, and thus explodes 

the charge under the bottom of the vessel. 

No. 17. Grand junction box. 

No. 18. Triple junction box. 

No. 19. Single junction box. 

These boxes ale for uniting the electric cable in such a manner as to j)revent any 

strain from coming upon the core. 
21 CEN 



322 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



C L ASS D. 
MODELS OF ENaiNEERINa WORKS AND APPLIiTNCES. 

No. 1. Topographical model of the rock obstructing the channel of East 
Kiver at Hallet's Point, Hell Gate, New York. Contributed by Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Newton, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, 
U. S. A. 

Showing the system of mining adopted by the United States for its removal by 
means of a coffer-dam, shaft, headings, and galleries, as executed under the direction 
of Bvt. Maj. Gen. John Newton, lieutenant-colonel, Corps of Engineers; Captain 
W. H. Heuer, assistant in charge of execution. Model constructed from official sur- 
veys by F. von Egloffstein, civil engineer. New York. Scale 1 to 150. 




Model of Hell Gate. 

The passage known as Hell Gate is a narrow and tortuous channel in East Eiver, 
between Long Island and Ward's Island, Avhich latter extends from One hundredth 
street, New York City, to about One hundred and fifteenth street. 

The channel is obstructed by numerous reefs of greater or less extent, and is also 
rendered much more dangerous by the violence of the abnormal currents or eddies, 
caused by the high velocity which the water must have at this point to accommodate 
itself to the rise and fall of the tide in the broader bay below. Hallet's Point, the 
location of this work, is a salient, on the Long Island side, forming the sharpest bend 
in the channel, and is the cause of the most troublesome of the false currents before 
mentioned. This current at times makes nearly at right angles to the axis of the 
channel, and runs directly into a number of dangerous rocks. ^ 

This reef projects into the channel at Hell Gate about 300 feet. The depth over it 
for a distance of 270 feet from shore is, at low water, less than \'l feet. The channel 
here being narrow and crooked, the object of this improvement is to widen and 
straighten it by securing a least depth of 26 feet of water over the reef. 

Work was commenced in July, 1869, by building a coffer-dam between high and low 
water marks. In October following, the excavation of the shaft was begun. From 
the bottom of the shaft ten tunnels were driven under the river in radial lines, and 
were extended until a depth of water upon the reef of 26 feet at low tide was 
reached, the roof of the excavation being kept nearly parallel to the bed of the river, 
and about 10 feet below it. The main tunnels are about 14 feet in width, varying 
from 10 to 22 feet in height, and averaging about 270 feet in length. They are con- 
nected with each other at intervals of 30 feet by means of cross-tunnels or galleries of 
about the same height and width. Between the tunnels and galleries large columns 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



323 



of solid rock were left to support the roof of the excavation, or bed of the river. These 
large columns were afterwards cut through by other tunnels and galleries, until finally 
173 piers were formed averaging about 10 feet each in thickness. The entire reef, 
covering an area of 3 acres, is thus undermined. The aggregate length of tunnels and 
galleries driven under the bed of the river is 7,425 feet. From the excavation 47,461 



aiiuij\r^. 



■J>c/,7A»j-lf^*^''- 




Ground plan of the work at Hell Gate. 

cubic yards of rock have been removed by drilling and blasting. This operation re- 
quired 208,174 linear feet of drill holes, of which 90,107 feet in depth were drilled by 
hand, and 118,067feet by various kinds of machine-drills, viz, the Burleigh, Diamond, 
Eand, Winchester, Wood, Ingersoll, and Waring drills, worked by compressed air. 

The following quantities and kinds of explosives were used in blasting the rock : 
Blasting powder, 24,431 pounds; uitro-glycerine, 26,471 pounds; giant powder, 1,932 
pounds; mica powder, 600 pounds; vulcan powder, 4,017 pounds; rend rock, 1,500 
pounds. In exploding these compounds, 63,756 exploders and 331,516 feet of Bickford's 
safety-fuse were used. In all about 75,000 blasts were fired. The usual method of 
driving a tunnel was as follows : The face of the rock was pierced obliquely with as 
many drill holes from 3 to 4 feet in depth as were deemed necessary. The charges 
were then prepared by placing the explosive in water-tight paper cartridges from 8 
to 12 inches long, and coutaining from 8 to 12 ounces of explosive ; into each of these 
cartridges would be inserted a copper cap (containing mercury fulminate), fastened 
to the end of a piece of safety-fuse generally about 5 feet in length. The cartridge 
was then pushed to the bottom of each hole, which was filled with water. The ends 
of the fuses, hanging from the drill hole§, were then ignited. The broken rock was 
then loaded upon small cars, carrying about one-third of a cubic yard each, which 
were hauled by mules along a railway to a turn-table near the middle of the floor 
of the shaft, where a derrick worked by steam hoisted the car body and its contents 
off the truck to the top of the shaft, and the rock there dumped into a tipping car 
attached to a small steam locomotive, which conveyed the debris, and deposited them 



324 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

at the end of tli€ dump pile. The excavations were completed in June, 1875, and since 
that xieriod the piers and under surface of the roof have been pierced with numerous 
blast holes to effect the final demolition. 

The excavation of Flood rock, a large reef in the channel, has been already com- 
menced upon the same principle as applied at Hallet's Point. 

No. 2. Model of steam drilling scow, as designed and constructed by 
Bvt. Maj. Gen. Jolin Newton. Scale 1 to 24. 

This machine consists of two parts, a large float or scow, having a well-hole in it 
of a diameter of 32 feet. It is built very heavy and strong, and is provided with an 
overhang or guard around it, faced with iron, and has provscd itself, up to this time, 
capable of withstanding violent collisions with other vessels. Besides affording this 
security, it serves also to transport the caisson, or dome, from place to place, and is a 
working platform from which the drilling engines are operated. The caisson, or dome, 
is a hemisphere of the diameter of -30 feet, composed of a strong iron frame covered 
with boiler iron. The dome is open at bottom and at top, and is provided at the bot- 
tom with legs to support and level it, which are arranged to be let go altogether 
after the dome is lowered. Owing to the hemispherical shape of the caisson, the 
pressures of the moving mass of water which are normal to the surface necessarily 
pass through the center, and there is consequently no tendency to an overthrow by 
the action of horizontal currents, but, on the contrary, an additional, downward 
pressure favorable to stability is produced. 

The caisson, or dome, is simply a framework, affording a fixed support to twenty-one 
drill-tubes through which the drills operate. The dome is connected with the scow 
by four chains communicating with four hoisting engines, by which it is lowered or 
raised. A framework is built upon the scow around the well-hole, to support the 
carriage holding the drill engines, which by these means maybe placed directly over 
the drill tubes. The engines simply raise the drill rods, and allow them to fall by 
their weight upon the rock, the vertical play being 18 inches. The drill and drill rods 
together are about 10 feet long, and weigh from 600 to 700 pounds. The cutting 
edges are in the form of a cross, and are 5| inches long. 

The scow, having the dome swung by chains, is first anchored over the rock to be 
operated upon, so that the bow and aft moorings pull against the direct currents of 
the ebb and flood tides ; but as these may vary somewhat in direction from one tide 
to another, as well as during the course of the same tide, it becomes necessary, in 
order to steady the scow, to have side anchors also. The diver descends to ascertain 
whether the location is wel) suited to placing the dome on the bottom, and, if not, 
to select a better. The required change in the position of the scow is made by length- 
ening and shortening the mooring chains with capstans, which are arranged to be 
worked, at will, with steam or man power. The dome is then lowered, and when it 
touches or approaches near the bottom, the legs are let go by the run, and, being 
held by self-acting cams, support the weight of the dome. The chains are now un- 
slung from the dome, which is thereby without connection with the scow. The diver 
descends to ascertain which of the drill tubes it is necessary to use to break up the 
rock within the dome, and how the surface offers itself to each particular drill. The 
drill rods being introduced within the drill tubes — which is easily effected during 
the most violent currents — a rope or other flexible connection is now made between 
the top of the drill rod and the piston rod of the drilling engines. A flexible connec- 
tion is necessary to the act of drilling, as in this machine, the dome remaining fixed 
upon the bottom in one position while the scow holding the drill engines swings for 
short distances from changes in the directions and strength of the currents, no rigid 
connection between the engine and drills would be practicable. The length of the 
rope attachment is regulated by a feed-gear for the rise and fall of the tides and 
continual changes of water-level. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 325 

The drilling being completed, preparations are made for charging the holes with 
nitro-glycerine. The chains are hooked on the dome, which is then raised from the 
bottom, and the scow swung off from the spot to a safe distance without casting loose 
the moorings. This distance will depend upon the proposed amount of charge of 
nitro-glycerine, and will vary from 175 to 350 feet. The nitro-glycerine in tin cases 
of different lengths to suit the varying depths of the drill-holes, is carried to the spot 
upon a small scow, from which the diver descends to the first hole to be charged. 
He is guided to this by a line. Withdrawing the plug, he introduces into the hole 
the tin cartridge, which has been tilled by the men on the scow and passed down to 
him. Each cartridge is attached, before it is sent down, to the wires. The diver then 
passes on to the second hole, guided by the plug line which connects the stoj)pers of 
the adjacent holes, and i^ this way the whole circuit of holes is visited and charged. 
The leading wires are connected with the battery, when the small scow has been 
withdrawn, and the explosion is made. 

To break up the rock thoroughly the drill-holes should be from 6 to 8 feet apart, of the 
size of 5i inches at toj), with the usual tapering towards the bottom, and charged with 
amounts varying with the depths of hole, which will average between 50 and 60 pounds 
for each. Under these conditions the depth to which the drill-hole reached below the 
level to which it was desired to break the rock was about 4 feet. 

After the rock broken by the explosion covers the greater part of the reef its re- 
moval is commenced. This is effected by means of a steam-grapple. 

By this machine Way's Reef at Hell Gate and Coenties Reef in East River have 
been removed to the depths of 26 and 25^ feet, respectively. It has also operated upon 
Diamond Reef, East River, and Frying Pan and Pot Rock in Hell Gate, and removed 
portions of these reefs. A channel has been cut by the same machine through a reef 
in the Harlem River. 

Since this model was constructed some changes have been made in the machine 
itself, but only in details of hoisting machinery on the deck of the scow, and not at 
all affecting the dome or caisson which is the distinctive feature of the machine. 

A single traveling derrick has been substituted for the four ordinary ones shown 
in the model, which were carried away by a collision. 

No. 3. Models of gabions used in construction of jetties at Galveston, 
Tex., scale 1 : 12. Contributed by Captain Howell, Corps of Engi- 
neers, brevet major, U. S. A. See also in connnection tlie photo- 
graphs and views which accompany the models (Class A, Ko. 38). 

This work, which originated in a series of experiments and has since been vigor- 
ously prosecuted with most excellent results, is chiefly interesting as indicating a 
method of utilizing otherwise useless material in the construction of submerged piers 
or jetties possessing the important advantages of strength, durability, and stability. 

The plan of this work and the manner of constructing the gabions was proposed 
by Capt C. W. Howell, Corps of Engineers, in a report of December 30, 1873. 

A Board of Engineers, convened for the purpose, reported in the following February, 
upon Captain Howell's project, indorsing his views with regard to the feasibility of 
employing piers, and with regard to the peculiar construction proposed by him, recom- 
mending that a trial De made before entering upon the work. The point in question 
was the stability of the gabions or capacity to resist the action of the currents tend- 
ing to drive them from their positions. 

The experiments made sufficiently demonstrated the stability of the gabions, they 
being found to stand in a position where 30-foot piles, sunk half their length in the 
sand, had failed. 

The jetties are.formed by placing gabions end to end along the proposed line. The 
gabions are 6x6x12 feet long and consist of a wooden top and bottom, connected by 
upright pickets covered with a wattling of sea cane, and a thick coating of cement 



326 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

laid on the wattling. The first gabions were 6 feet diameter and 6 feet high, and 
were placed in two rows side by side to form a tier, bnt the second row was soon abfin- 
doned as unnecessary, and the circular gabions subsequently gave place to the oblong 
ones above described. The crevices at the ends of the gabions are stopped by cane 
fascines, held in place by concrete weights. The bottom is protected from the action 
of rebounding currents by aprons of sea cane, laid on each side of the gabions and 
loaded with concrete blocks. Spurs are run out at intervals at right angles to the 
general line, to destroy the longitudinal currents when any exist. A bar immediately 
begins to form behind the gabions and soon grows to the top of the tier. 

Upon the crest of this bar, resting half upon the sand and half upon the lower tier, 
a second tier may be laid if necessary, and the same construction may be repeated 
till the surface is reached. The construction of the gabicms is thus described by 
Lieutenant Quinn, the. officer in superintendence, in one of his reports: "A bottom of 
2-foot plank is first made ; this is taken to the weaving-ground, when the stakes are 
placed in the holes bored for their reception ; a form is placed at the top of the stakes 
to hold them in position ; the wicker-work is then commenced and carried half way 
up, when four cross-wads are fastened in place by galvanized iron wire ; the top 
form is then removed and the wattling completed ; a ballast of roncrete is then laid 
evenly over the bottom and carefnlly rammed ; a plank lop is then put on the gabion 
and the stakes securely nailed to both top and bottom ; two f-inch iron bolts pass 
through the top and bottom and bind the whole securely together ; the outside is 
then carefully covered with two coats of cement plaster, after which the gabion is 
allowed to stand two weeks before it is considered ready for sinking." 

The cost of materials and labor for the construction of a single gabion, including 
the fascines and protection mats, is |42.53. The cost of a gabion in position is $62.53, 
making the cost of the pier per running foot $5.21. 

This estimate was made in the experimental work and can probably be reduced 
with skilled labor and materials in large contracts. 

The project contemplates 37,000 feet of jetty, two tiers high, and 20,000 feet of spar 
jetties one tier high, at a total cost of about $560,000. 

The official reports on this work, giving full details, are to be found in the Report 
of the Chief of Engineers for 1875, Part I. 

No. 4. Model of dredging apparatus on U. S. dredge-boat McAlester. 
Contributed by Capt. 0. W. Howell, Corps of Engineers, brevet major, 
U. S. A. ' 

The Government owns two boats of this pattern, one of which, the Essayous, was 
built in 1868, and entirely rebuilt in 1876. The other, the McAlester, was built in 
1872. The design of these vessels was by the late General McAlester, Corps of Engi- 
neer 

The dredging attachment or " deflector" is the device of Captain Howell and has 
been placed on both boats. Captain Howell in building the McAlester, also made a 
number of improvements in the dredging machinery. The " deflector" consists of a 
curved or scoop-shaped shield of iron, about 20 feet wide and 12 feet deep at the mid- 
dle. The deflector is attached to two iron arms about 30 feet long, and the arms are 
fastened to the sides of the vessel at points about 25 feet from the bow rudder post, and 
20 feet below the water line, giving the deflector a rotation about an axis passing 
through these points. The deflector is raised and lowered by a chain passing over a 
pulley to a capstan called a "wild-cat" connected with the forward hoisting engines. 
The vessel is provided with two screws, the forward one being the excavating screw, 
and is accompanied by the deflector. 

The boat is operated as follows: Being below the shoal to be operated upon, with 
the deflector raised, she is run up stream on the bar, as far as desirable, and stopped. 
The deflector is then lowered until it sinks a foot or two in the mud or sand, when 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



327 



the excavating screw is set in motion backwards. This screw loosens the mnd and 
throws it against the deflector, which, being at an angle with the perpendicular, sends 
it into the upper current, which carries it down stream, and it is deposited in deeper 
water. 

Xo. 5. Model of end dock, for docking United States dredge-boats at 
the month of the Mississippi Eiver, with pumping machinery. De- 
signed by Capt. C. W. Howell, Corps of Engineers. Contributed by 
Capt. C. W. Howell, Cori^s of Engineers, brevet major, U. S. A. 

This dock is thus described by Captain Howell, in his report, September 10, 1873 : 

'^ A new end dock was completed July 5, for the use of the McAlester and Essay- 
ons. 

''This dock is, I believe, the largest of its kind ever built, and has some novel feat- 
ures deserving mention. 

" The after end is filled with water-tight bulkheads forming three compartments 
for water ballast, by the use of which the vessel docked is relieved from much of the 
strain incident to the use of end docks. 

"Ballast can be added or pumped out as called for by the removal or replacement 
of heavy machinery and all change of strain avoided. 

"The facility with which this is done with water makes its use a great improve- 
ment over the old method of putting in each end stone or iron ballast. The after 
end has also been fitted with a long box or trough by which the propeller shaft can 
be taken out of the ship and replaced when repaired. Tlie shaft of the McAlester, 24 
feet long and 15 inches diameter, has just been taken out in this way, with as great 
care as could have been done in a dry-dock. 

" This novel and useful feature fits the end dock for doing all repairs except to the 
hull amidships and below the water line, a portion of the dredges only needing re- 
pairs once in two or three years. The open end of the dock has been fitted with a 
complete set of molds for the dredges, so arranged that they can be exchanged in a 
few hours. 

" Molds for other steamers and ships cruising to this port can be arranged in the 
same way." 

No. 6. Model of sounding machine. Contributed by Colonel Macomb, 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 

An apparatus for obtaining and recording soundings with greater rapidity and ac- 
curacy, and at less expense than by other methods. Has been used for some years in 
the improvement of Rock Island and Des Moines Rapids of the Mississippi River. 

In general surveys of portions of river by the use of the machine large numbers of 
soundings are made at regular intervals, with no wide gaps as are customary in skiff 
soundings, so that superior hydrographic maps are obtained, which accurately define 
the channel and give a perfect representation of the river bottom. In rock excava- 
tions cofter-dams may be properly located, or where chisel and dredge or the various 
methods of submarine blasting are employed for removing smaller j^atches of rock 
than it is customary to coffer-dam, the quantities of rock removed can be actually de- 
termined. This machine was designed and constructed by Maj. E. F. Hoffmann, assist- 
ant engineer, under supervision of Col. J. N. Macomb, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 

The general scale of the model is in the proportion of 0.085 to 1 of the original. The 
lateral scale of the sounding boxes and poles is double the above, it. being found in- 
expedient to show the details of the same on so small a scale. The scale of the record- 
ing apj)aratus is also doubled. In the model the distance which the sounding poles 
descend is to the length of line shown on the record in the proportion of 15 to 2, but 
in the machine itself 15 to 1. 

The body of the machine consists of five small flat-boats, one of which is somewhat 



328 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



larger than the others, combined as shown in the model into a system 100 feet in 
length. This system is attached to the how of a light-draught steamer, at right an- 
gles to her center line, by means of two diagonal spars, so as to place the apparatus 
completely under her control and insure a steady, uniform motion at any rate of speed 
desired. 

Upon this system of boats is erected a frame-work of masts stiffened by guy-rods, 
which carries the sounding boxes and poles, ten in number, at intervals of 11.1 feet. 

The power for- working the apparatus is transmitted from thesteamer by meansof a 
steam capstan (in the model a crank is substituted for convenience). This runs a line 
of shafting, passing through the lower ends of the sounding boxes, on which shafting- 
are the wheels which carry the chains which draw down the sounding poles. The 
poles on striking the bottom displace a lever arm, thus bringing a counterweight run- 
ning in the sounding boxes into play, which draws the pole back to its original posi- 
tion. Should the water be deeper than the length of the pole, on reaching the full 
length, the lever is struck by a fixed arm on the sounding boxes and the pole returns 
as before. (This latter attachment not shown in model.) 

To insure a perpendicular motion of the poles in their descent cords are attached 
to their feet, which cords j)ass around wheels on a line of shafting laid along the bows 
of the flat-boats. This shaft is run by a pair of screw wheels on the main shaft, the 
peripheries of which wheels are so adjusted as to give just sufficient line to each pole 
to insure perpendicularity at whatever depth it may descend. 

On the axes of the wheels at the tops of the sounding boxes are screws, the dimen- 
sions of which are such that the periphery described by a point in the thread of the 
screw in one revolution is in proportion to the periphery of the wheel itself as 2 to 
15, so that for each 15 inches of descent made by the pole, the line passing around the 
screw will be wound up 2 inches. In the machine small pulleys are used instead of 
screws, and the proportion is as 1 to 15. 

The lines passing around these screws are conducted by small pulleys and nrade 
fast to the upper ends of small steel rods, ten in number, each rod corresponding to 
one of the poles. These rods run on small sharp-edged wheels pressed firmly against 
white paper, on which pajjer as the poles descend marks are made proportional in 
length to the distance of descent of the corresponding x^ole. This series of marks con- 
stitutes the record, and may subsequently be reproduced in figures by means of a scale 
prepared for the purpose. 

The mode of locating the soundings made by the machine is as follows : 

On the shore at both ends of a measured base line are two men with theodolites. 
At the instant of sounding, the signal fin the model represented by a brass ball) is run 
up, this being accomplished by a line passing over a wheel run by the main shaft. 
This signal, the center of which is in a line with the sounding poles, is covered at 
the same instant of time by the cross-hairs of the theodolites on shore. Thus the one 
end of the system of boats is located. Another man with theodolite is stationed on 
the same end of the apparatus, who at the instant of sounding takes the angle repre- 
senting the difference of direction of the center line of the system of boats and a line 
from his instrument to one of the instrumental stations on shore. The relative posi- 
tions of the XDoles, the signal and the theodolite on the boats being known, the loca- 
tion is complete. 

Although the machine is capable of making six dij)s a minute, or sixty soundings, 
yet, as the theodolite observers cannot without great labor make more than three ob- 
servations per minute, for any protracted length of time, the operation of the machine 
is restricted to three dips, or thirty soundings, per minute. This would give, making 
allowance for the usual delays, about 10,000 soundings per day. By means of a skiff 
about 1,000 per day can be made. The advantage, then, in point of time of the machine 
over skiff soundings is as 10 to 1. In preliminary surveys, or where great accuracy of 
location is not required, the full quota of 6 dips per minute maybe made by interpo- 
lation, and 20,000 soundings per day can thus be obtained. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



329 



The following table shows the advantage per daj' of the machine in point of ex- 
pense : 

SKIFF. ] MACHINE. 

Hire of steamer (including men 

and coal) $36 00 

1 pilot 5 00 

3 theodolite observers, at $4 12 00 

1 machinist, at 3 00 

1 assistant machinist, at 2 00 

4 recorders, at $1.33^ 5 33 



2 theodolite observers, at $4 |8 00 

2 boatmen, at $2 4 00 

1 sounder, at |2 2 00 

1 flagman, at |2 2 00 

3 recorders, at $1.33^ 4 00 



Total per day 20 00 

By stiff 1,000 soundings per day, at $20, 
would give 2 cents per sounding. 



Total per day 63 33 

By machine 10,000 sounding per day, at 
$63.33, would give about .63 of a cent per 
sounding. 



Or the advantage of the machine is about 3^ to 1 in point of expense. 
Macomb. 



-Colonel 



No. 7. Model of section of breakwater at Dunkirk, N. Y. Contributed 
by Lieutenant-Colonel Blunt, Corps of Engineers, brevet colonel, U. 
S. A., for Major Harwood, Corps of Engineers, brevet lieutenant- 
colonel, U. S. A. 

This structure stands in 8 feet water on a nearly level foundation of compact slate. 
The particular difficulties to be encountered in its construction were : 

1st. The liability to destruction of incomplete work by the violence of heavy in- 
coming waves which suddenly arise and attack the work within a few hours with 
little previous warning. 

2d. The tendency of the structure while thus attacked to slide out of position 
over the smooth slate surface of its foundation. 

Several previous structures or sections of breakwater having been from time to 
time destroyed or displaced from these causes, the breakwater of which this is a 
model was designed by the engineer officer in charge of the public work at this har- 
bor to meet and overcome the difficulties above mentioned, and has thoroughly suc- 
ceeded in so doing, 818 feet of breakwater having been built from 1871 to 1875, inclu- 
sive, all of which is intact and has required no repairing nor met with any serious 
disaster in construction. 

The peculiarities of the design are : 

1st. The grillage deck, whereby the loss of one, or even several, planks during a 
gale of wind does not endanger the whole superstructure or a greater or less section, 
as is the case in the ordinary system of frame deck. 

Through the grillage deck, also, wastage or settling of the ballast can be remedied 
by a supx)ly of beach rubble or gravel without the laborious and Avasteful operation 
of taking off and replacing more or less planking. It is found by experience that the 
heaviest seas washing over the breakwater effect no material wastage through the 
grillage deck, but that the sea has its force effectually broken and is dispersed by the 
grillage spaces. 

2d. The timber slope upon which the incoming wave of translation, which here 
rolls to the bottom of the lake, is received and divided at the water level, the hori- 
zontal thrust of the upper half is neutralized by the action of the reflux of the 
preceding wave, the submerged portion of the work alone opposing the maximum 
dimension to the attack of the remaining half. 

Observe the thorough system of horizontal bolting whereby a continuous bond of the 
slope is effected, also the provision made for the thorough protection of the foot of the 
slope, which is otherwise the weakest point of the work. 



330 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

3d. The interior loagitudinal partition wall separating the slope sections from the 
body of the work and through which all ties and other cross-timbers are dovetailed, 
thus leaving a complete work 20 feet in width to oppose the incoming wave in the 
event of disaster to any portion of the exterior or slope section. This dovetailing 
was the happy thought of Mr. George E. Fell, assistant engineer. 

4th. The grillage bottom, which is not claimed as an invention, being the same in 
form as habitually used in government works on the great lakes, but modified by sub- 
stitution of plank for timber, diminishing expense and buoyant effort. Through this 
grillage the ballast is spilled to the lake bottom, forming a bond with it and opposing 
its friction to the tendency of the structure to slide over the smooth slate foundation 
as before noticed. This bottom was prescribed by the Board of Engineer Officers of 
1870. — Colonel Harwood. 

^N'o. 8. Model of section of Breakwater at Oswego, N. Y. Contributed 
by Major Wilson, Corps of Engineers, brevet colonel, U. S. A. 

This breakwater is constructed of timber cribs filled with stone. It is made of un- 
usual strength to resist the great force of the lake waves (see No. 7 above). 

The cribs are 35 feet square and of varying height. They are placed side by side 
and surmounted with a continuous superstructure, extending about 6 feet above low 
water. Great care was taken to fit the cribs closely to the bottom, and this with the 
interior bracing ^nd a complete system of diagonal drift-bolting gives them great 
stability. The work is in charge of Maj. Jno. M. Wilson, Corps of Engineers. 

No. 9. Model of United States shipping and landing pier at Lewes, 
Del. Contributed by Lieutenant-Colonel Kurtz, Corps of Engineers, 
brevet colonel, U. S. A. 

The scale of the model is t inch to 1 foot ; it shows one baj'^ of the bridge and four 
bays of the head. The parts of the pier preceding and succeeding the model being of 
like construction, the whole may be described as follows : 

The first forty-five rows of piles are 5^ inches diameter, with a length of 23 feet 
(except the three rows nearest the abutment whose lengths are 16, 18, and 20 feet 
respectively). 

These have a single system of vertical diagonal cross-braces of 2-inch round iron, 
reaching from the cast-iron caps on the tops of the piles to the clamps, which are 
about 4 inches below mean low water; the next five rows are 5f inches diameter, and 
from 24 to 29^ feet in length, with the same kind of braces (the last row of these is 
the first of the model). At the commencement of the pier-head, which is 43 feet and 
five piles wide, there are three rows whose diameters are 6;^ inches, and lengths from 
31 to 33 feet, and have a double set of cross-braces; the upper ones like those described 
above, and the lower ones of 2^-inch round iron, reaching from the upper clamps to 
the lower set of clamps just above the bed of the harbor. 

Commencing with the fourth row of the pier-head, or the fifty-eighth of the pier, 
the piles are 8^ inches diameter and about 55 feet long. (The second row of these is 
the last of the model.) They have the double system of cross-braces; the upper ones 
being 2^: inches, and the lower ones from 2|- to 2^ inches diameter. 

From the fifty-fourth row there is also a system of longitudinal vertical diagonal 
braces, under water, the diameter of which increases from 2^ to 3 inches. 

The main stringers of the superstructure are of 12 by 12 inch sawed timber, 44 feet 
6 inches long, with scarped ends. They cover two bays or three piles longitudinally ; 
the outside timbers are single, the inner ones double, breaking joints, with a space of 
1 inch between. 

Over each transverse row of piles and notched to the main stringers, are two 9 by 9 
inch girders with a 4-inch space between ; these are secured by bolts passing through 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 33 I 

them, the main striDgers, and the cast-iron cap at each crossing. Between these are 
thirteen 4 by 9 inch beams set on edge, notched and spiked to the main stringers. 

One side of the floor is planked with 3 by 6 inch stnflf for wagons, and the other is 
arranged to carry on the bridge a single, and on the head a doable, railway track. 

No. 10. Specimens of iron used in the construction of United States 
Iron Shipping and Landing' Pier, Delaware Breakwater harbor. 

Hammered iron for shafts, turnbnckles, and bolts, to bear a tensile strain of 60,000 
ponnds to the sectional sqnare inch. 

Rolled iron for braces to bear a tensile strain of 60,000 ponnds to the sectional 
sqnare inch. 

Cast iron for screws and caps to bear a tensile strain of 25,000 ponnds to the sectional 
square inch. 

Xo. 11. Model of derrick used at Lewes, Del. Contributed by Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel Kurtz, Corps of Engineers, brevet colonel, U. S. A. 

The top of the derrick is but 23 feet above the platform or 37 feet above mean low 
water. Its special feature is an open jaw made by the two 6 by 12 inch timbers com- 
posing its jib. The carriage supporting the main chain sheav^es is arranged to brace 
the two jib pieces horizontally. 

To raise to a true vertical position one of the iron shafts 8^ inches diameter by 55 
feet length (of which the pier-head is mostly made) the shaft is gripped one-third of 
its length from the head by an automatic ^' sling"; the head passes through the open 
jaw and projects above it, and the need of a high, heavy derrick is thus avoided. 

No. 12. Model of clamp. Contributed by Lieutenant-Colonel Kurtz, 
Corps of Engineers, brevet colonel, U. S. A. 

This instrument obviates the necessity of a key-way in or feather on the piles, or 
the use of set-sere ws,being automatic in clamping itself. 

Above the usual casting containing sockets for the levers are three clamps working 
between two wronght-iron plates; the levers or airms of the cams are opened by the 
casting; the whole fits loosely over the pile; when this is ready to be screwed clown 
the capstan is revolved, the plates being held stationary nntil the cams touch the 
pile, when the device tightens itself. The stiffer the soil penetrated, the tighter the 
Instrument grips. It is loosened by reversing, and grips again to unscrew the pile 
when necessary. 

Ko. 13. Model of automatic "sling." Contributed by Lieutenant-Colo- 
nel Kurtz, Corps of Engineers, brevet colonel, U. S. A. 

The grip of the sling is made by two lever eccentrics working behind two chocks, 
which are curved to fit the pile. A bolt passes through the eccentrics and two band 
pieces which loosely hug the pile ; the lifting chains are hooked into the levers of the 
eccentrics. In lifting the levers are raised and the eccentrics force the chocks against 
the pile. When slacked the instrument detaches itself. 

]N'o. 14. Model of harbor of refuge and vicinity. Sand Beach, Lake Hu- 
ron, scale 1 to 2,500. Contributed by Major Weitzel, Corps of Engi- 
neers, brevet major-general, U. S. A., showing the general location of 
breakwater at this harbor. (See in connection Class A, ISTo. 31.) 

Sand Beach Bay, or Sand Beach as it is more commonly called, is in Huron County, 
Michigan, 60 miles from Port Huron light-house and 14 miles south of Point Aux 
Barques light. 

The west coast of Lake Huron, from Point Aux Barques to the entrance to Saint 
Clair River, is entirely exposed to all northeast, east, and southeast gales, and even 



332 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION 1876. 

strong north or south, winds will make a heavy sea on that shore. The coast is ex- 
ceptionally free from bays or points of sufficient magnitude to enable vessels caught 
out in gales to derive any benefit from their shelters and the necessity for an artificial 
harbor at some convenient distance south of Point Aux Barques has long been felt by 
vessel owners on the lakes. A vessel caught in a gale 50 or 60 miles from Port Huron 
light-house if unable to make Point Aux Barques, is either compelled to weather the 
storm in one of the most dangerous places on the whole chain of lakes, viz, the mouth 
of Saginaw Bay, or she must run back to the shelter of the Saint Clair River. It is 
a common thing for vessels to put back two or three times before being able to cross 
the bay. The exi)enses thus incurred by vessel owners is enormous during every 
season. 

As a properly located harbor of refuge would obviate all of this, and as the x^roposed 
work would be of inestimable value to almost the entire commerce of the lakes. Congress 
was asked to make an appropriation for the work. Accordingly on March 3, 1871, an 
appropriation of |100,000 for the commencement of the work was granted. Under the 
direction of Maj. O. M. Poe, Corps of Engineers, brevet brigadier-general, U. S. A., ex- 
aminations and surveys were made at three points, viz, Port Hope, Sand Beach, and 
Blue Ledge, with a view to determine which of them offered the greatest advantages 
for the proposed harbor. 

The surveys were very minute in their character, and were not completed until 
the end of August, 1871. Neither of the three above mentioned j)oints appearing to 
satisfy all the conditions of a good site. General Poe, on September 30, 1871, suggested 
that a Board of Engineer officers of high rank be convened for the pur^jose of definitely 
selecting a site for the harbor. The request was granted, and the following officers 
directed to meet in Detroit on the 19th of October, 1871 : Col. J. N. Macomb, Lieut. 
Col. I. C. Woodruff, Maj. C. B. Comstock, Maj. O. M. Poe, and Maj. F. U. Farquhar, 
all of the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. The Board were ordered to visit two localities, 
Port Hope and Saud Beach, and to especially examine into the extent and nature 
of their holding grounds. They were also directed to ascertain the views of persons 
engaged in the commerce and navigation of the lakes, and to report fully upon the most 
suitable site for the harbor of refuge, its i^lan, the form, dimensions, and mode of con- 
struction of its breakwater or piers, and to accompany the same with an estimate of 
cost of its construction. 

The Board met October 19, 1872, pursuant to orders, and after numerous sessions, ex- 
tending through an entire year, decided that the results of the numerous examinations 
and surveys made at their suggestion showed that all other points than Port Hope 
and Sand Beach offered so little encouragement that it was not deemed necessary to 
discuss their relative merits, and as between Sand Beach and Port Hope there appeared 
to be nothing either in the geographical position or nature of the anchorage to give 
a decided jjreference to either, the Board concluded that the question of location was 
practically reduced to one of cost. 

At Port Hope, in order to secure the harbor deemed necessary, a breakwater of 10,000 
feet in length would be required. At Sand Beach the same shelter could be obtained 
by a breakwater 7,000 in length. The cost of construction being so largely in favor 
of Saud Beach, the Board selected that lilace for the proposed harbor, and submitted 
plans and estimates for the work. 

Their plans called for a continuous line of breakwater nearly 7,000 feet in length. 
A point was selected about 3,000 feet from shore and in 20 feet of water. From this 
point the construction was to begin, the first crib being an angle crib, with its two 
sides making an angle of nearly 148°, and to be so placed in position that the sides 
would run in west-northwest and southeast directions, respectively. Thu first to be 
extended till, at the end of 2,825 feet, it should reach the shore. The side running 
southeast to be continued a distance of 3,900 feet. 

The estimated cost of the harbor was !$1, 452,500 for a length of about 7,000 feet. 
The report of the Board was approved, and proposals for the work, as far as the funds 
available would permit, were advertised for under date of April 19, 1878. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



?>?>Z 



Maj. G. Weitzel, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A., relieved Gen- 
eral Poe on May 1 following, and since then has been the engineer in charge of the 
work. On May 20 the proposals were opened and the contract awarded to Messrs. 
Dale & Davidson, of Chicago. The construction of the breakwater to form the harbor 
proposed is essentially the same as is used in similar works on the lakes. It consists 
of cribs of timber bolted with iron filled with ballast stone and planked on top. The 
cribs are sunk to a foot or two above the level of the water, and after being allowed 
to settle, the superstructure, a continuous work, is put on. The breakwater is pro- 
tected from floating ice on the outer side by iron sheeting 4 feet wide, the upper edge 
being placed 1 foot above the level of the water. Snubbing or mooring posts are 
provided every 20 feet, and at the same distance apart on the inner face ladders are 
placed flush with the surface of the cribs, to enable persons to reach the deck of the 
breakwater from small boats. 

A pier light (white fixed) of the fourth order has been built by the Light-House 
Department on the angle crib, and upon the completion of the breakwater another 
will be placed at the extremity of the southeast wing. In the first plans proposed 
both the longitudinal and cross walls of the cribs were to be built up solid. This 
plan was changed, however, before any cribs were built, and every alternate timber 
left out of the cross walls. The object of this change was to allow the ballast stone 
to arch over and settle in between the cross-ties, and by its weight on them to mate- 
rially assist in keeping the crib in position. The plan has worked admirably. No 
trouble whatever has been experienced from the shifting of the cribs. 

In the north wing of the breakwater, and at a distance of 325 feet from the angle, an 
opening of 300 feet has been left to facilitate the ingress and egress of vessels. It is 
hoped that the sea admitted by this will not materially affect the smooth water inside, 
and the opening will certainly materially assist vessels in reaching and leaving the 
harbor. If it is found necessary to close it it can be done at any time. 

At this date, June 27, there are in place twenty-seven cribs 65 feet long, 38 feet 
wide, or a. length of 1,755 feet; twenty cribs 25 by 50 feet, equal to 1,000 feet, and 
ten cribs 18 by 45 feet, equal to 450 feet. This gives a total length of 3,205 feet of 
breakwater, of which all but 195 feet at the southeast end is entirely completed. 

The total cost of the work thus far has been about $350,000. This length of break- 
water furnishes of itself a good harbor for vessels, and during the last season was ex- 
tensively used by vessels, as manj^ as 40 being safely anchored behind it at one time. 
An accurate chart of the harbor and its approaches has been prepared by the United 
States Lake Survey, and will be ready for issue soon. — General Weitzel. 

IsTo. 15. Model of angle crib of the breakwater above described, scale 
tbree-eightlis to one inch. Contributed by Major Weitzel, Corps of En- 
gineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 

This crib (in two parts) was the first sunk, and stands in 22 feet of water. The 
sides of the cribs and the longitudinal partitions are solid, and the transverse parti- 
tions are open, being of 12-inch timber, placed 12 inches apart. For the snperstruc- 
tion the crib-work is carried up and made continuous. The outside, from low water 
up, is strengthened and protected by a tier of 12-inch timbers, placed vertically 
strongly fastened to the crib, and connected by strong pieces at the top and near the 
bottom. Over the whole a deck of thick plank is laid. The vertical timbers are fur- 
ther protected from ice and driftwood by an iron plating at the water level. 

A light has been placed on the angle crib, as shown in the model. 

No. 16. Model of a crib. Contributed by Maj. D. 0. Houston, Corps of 
Engineers, brevet colonel, U. S. A. 

The timber generally used is pine, 12 inches square, secured by iron drift bolts. Th© 
bottom of the crib is formed of a grillage, leaving openings to allow the stone filling 
to pass through when sand is washed out from under the crib, thus preventing the 



334 lA^TERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

tiltiug of the crib, wliicli would otherwise occur. This does not perfectly accomplish 
the desired object, and various methods have been designed to prevent the unequal 
settlement and displacement of cribs. I have sent a few copies of " Method of Sink- 
ing Cribs" devised by me, which has been successfully adopted at several harbors. — 
Colonel Houston. 

This method of sinking cribs, devised by Major Houston, is considered of sufficient 
importance to be inserted here, as described by him : 

'■'■ Six i3iles are driven on each side of the site of the crib, in pairs, as shown in the 
drawing and perspective view. The piles are capped with a stick of oak timber, run- 
ning the whole length of the crib. The crib is built in three compartments by parti- 
tions running lengthwise. The middle compartment has a close bottom, about 13 
courses below the top. The outer compartments have entirely open bottoms, or may 
have a single longitudinal stick, as shown in the drawing. In the cribs sunk at 
Chicago they are entirely open, which is considered iDieferable. Chains are attached 
to the lower cross timbers of the crib, three on each side. The chains are made of 
sufficient length to enable them to be securely fastened to the oak timber between 
each pair of piles, when the crib is lowered to its required position. The piles hav- 
ing been driven and capped and the crib framed, the latter is lowered to its position 
and weighed down with stone, uutil its bottom is (say) 4 feet above the bottom of 
the lake. The chains are then secured to the oak timbers in the manner described. 
The upper end of the chain is provided with a hook which will pass through any 
link. 

'' It was found desirable to take two turns of the chain over the oak timber. This 
prevents any further settlement. The filling then proceeds, care being taken not to 
put too much stone in the middle compartment, to bring too great a strain on the 
chains until the outer compartments are filled. These outer compartments, having 
open bottoms, allow the stone to pass through freely. Foundations are thus formed 
on which the crib rests. In case of any undermining the stone passes down with- 
out taking the crib with it, and thus prevents any displacement or settlement of the 
crib. 

"The stone in the middle compartment, which has a close bottom, does not move, 
and is sufficient to secure the crib in its place in case of storms, and prevents the pos- 
sibility of the crib rising by the sifting of the stone through the grillage bottom, as 
has sometimes occurred. It is considered that the bottom of this middle compart- 
ment may be nearer to tlie top of the crib. 

"The crib thus remains in the position in which it was originally placed, and the 
superstructure can be put on at once. Three cribs have been placed in this manner 
in the Chicago breakwater, and so far successfully. After a crib has been once placed 
and filled in this manner it is not seen how it can be displaced. 

"This method is adapted to all soft or sandy bottoms where there is a tendency 
to undermine. It insures a close fit of the cribs, and a perfect alignment, and 
avoids the difficulties and expense of leveling up and otherwise arranging for super- 
structure. 

"This method has also the advantage of securing the crib during the process of 
sinking. The additional cost of the piles, &c., is more than compensated for in the 
diminished amount of timber and stone required, and the reduced cost of putting on 
the superstructure. The superstructure need not necessarily be continuous. Addi- 
tional stone should be thrown in on each side of the crib." 

No. 17. Model of pile pier. Contributed by Major Houston, Corps of 
Engineers, brevet colonel, U. S. A. 

This is a cheap method of construction adopted at harbors of minor imiDortauce or 
where the funds provided are limited. It consists of two parallel rows of piles driven 
into the lake bed. These piles are cut otit at the water level and the two rows tied 



I BREAKWATER 

)d of sinking' 

% Corp s of Eaguieers US Jl 




O'oss SecMon through line A.B. 




of 

CRIB U^ CHICAGO BREAKWATER 

SHowiag metho d of sinking' 

<ievisedl)/MajorD.C.HOrSTON,CorpsofEaguieersU.S.A. 

1873. 




Smle. lin-lOft. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



335 



together near the top. A superstructure of timber is built on the piles, and the whole 
filled with brush or slabs (refuse from the saw-mills), loaded with stoue. 

These two models show the geueral character of harbor coustructious on the Great 
Lakes. Many modifications of the crib and pile constructions have been made, and 
there is still room for improvement, especially in the pile pier. 

Ko. 18. Model of a grapple. Contributed by Major Merrill, Corps of 
Engineers, brevet colonel, U. S. A. 

The grapple of which I forwarded a model is the one used in the Ohio Eiver for the 
removal of large bowlders from the bed of the river. Before it was built various kinds 
of clam-shell grapples and dredge-buckets were examined, but all seemed uusuited to 
the special circumstances of the case on account of requiring separate drums for lower- 
ing and for hoisting. This was objectionable, because it was necessary to obtain a 
grapple for service with the hand-power crane-boats that are in common use on the 
Ohio, which have only one hoisting drum, being used to lift heavy articles that have 
been previously chained. 

This grapple is opened while being lowered over a bowlder by simply taking a turn 
around a cavil with the opening rope, and holding this rope fast until a sufficient 
width of opening is obtained. The grapple is thus opened by its own weight, after 
which both hoisting chain and opening rope are lowered together until the grai^ple 
is in position for raising the stone. The act of hoisting brings the fingers of the grap- 
ple under the bowlder, which is lifted as in a basket. 

It was thought best to use the simple system of levers shown in the model, rather 
than the compound systems used on clam-shell dredges, in order to avoid the severe 
strains on the members that are developed in other systems where the fingers cannot 
close under the stoue to be lifted. It is not expected that this grapple will lift em- 
bedded bowlders; the latter are invariably first broken up by blasting. 

This grapple has been used with great success on the Ohio aud Kanawha Elvers. 
The only drawback to its steady use comes from the rivers themselves, which are 
almost always either too high or too muddy for work of this character. It is there- 
fore necessary to so arrange matters as to be able to begin and end work at a moment's 
notice. 

The cai^acity of the grapple is 15 tons. Its weight is 2,700 pounds. It should be 
added that the actual grapple has four fingers on each side instead of three, as shown 
in the model, aud also diff'ers from it in some minor points: the model was built from 
the designs prepared for a second grapple, and therefore contains the improvements 
suggested by experience with the first. — Colonel Merrill. 

Ko. 19. Model of the extreme portion of Cape Cod. Contributed by 
Lieutenant-Colonel Thorn, Corps of Engineers, brevet brigadier-gene- 
ral, U. S. A. 

Horizontal scale, 1 to 20,000 ; vertical scale. 1 to 1,000. 

The model of Provincetowu Harbor was prepared under the direction of Colonel 
Thom, in 1872, by Mr. Sophus Haagensen, civil engineer, for the purpose of showing 
at a glance the configuration and formation of the northern extremity of Cape Cod, 
and the several places where the harbor of Provincetowu has hitherto been exposed to 
injury and even to destruction ; also, the several dikes, bulkheads, jetties, and other 
works that had lieen built up to 1872 for its protection aud preservation, with the 
benefits resulting therefrom. 

From 120 feet to 30 feet below mean low water the model is constructed from Colonel 
Graham's map of 1835; above the 30-foot curve surveys made under the direction of 
Lieut. Col. George Thom have been used. 

White painted part of the bottom indicates clear sand ; dark gray bottom, stift' mud ; 
brown colored part, soft mud ; blue painted part indicates limits of rise and fall of 
tide ; green indicates salt marsh. 



336 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

Above the high- water line the topography is not represented. 

East Harbor Pond and Salt Meadow are fresh since the construction of the State 
dike at Beach Point and the United States dike at High Head. 

The construction of the United States dike at Abel Hill has stopped the flow of 
tide from Lancy's Harbor into Provincetown Harbor. 

iTo. 20. Model of the hull of United States suag-boat Macomb. Contrib- 
uted by Maj. Charles R. Suter, Corps of Engineers. (See Class A, 
Ko. 75 to 79.) 

No. 21. Model of grapple and derrick used in Kew York Harbor. Con- 
tributed by General Newton. 

No. 22. Mattress or apron across New Inlet, Cape Fear Riyer. North 
Carolina. Model contributed and work in charge of Colonel Craig- 
hill, Corps of Eogineers. 

The following history of the work, consisting mainly of extracts from an '■'■ His- 
torical Sketch of the improvement of the Cape Fear River, North Carolina," was kindly 
furnished by Captain Phillips, Corps of Engineers, assistant to Colonel Craighill : 

" The New Inlet is located about 7 miles above the mouth of the Cape Fear Eiver, 
The traditions of the country give the year 1762 as the date of the opening of the 
inlet. 

"An article published in the London Magazine (December, 1761) gives an account of 
a violent equinoctial storm which commenced September 20, 1761, and lasted four 
days, during which the sea made a breach 18 feet deep at high water, and nearly 
half a mile wide, through the outer beach at a place called the Haulover. This was, 
no doubt, at the present site of the inlet. Tradition says that the famous storm re- 
ferred to above was a " dry blow ; " and it is easy to imagine that, under such cir- 
cumstances, a depression might soon be made in the dry sand sufficient to permit of 
the trickling through of water /rom the river to the sea. It is not probable that the 
action of the waves upon the outer beach had anything to do with making the opening, 
but, on the contrary, their action would tend rather to restore and maintain the beach. 

"A map of the Cape Fear River was published in 1794. At this date the inlet had 
been in existence over thirty years, and its effects upon the main bar were very mani- 
fest. On this map we find printed the words, "10 feet bar at low water." From the 
most reliable of the older maps there were at least 15 feet on the bar at low water 
before the breaking out of the inlet. 

"In 1839 the bar had shoaled up to 8 feet of water at low tide, and continued to 
keep at about the same depth until the year 1853. During the latter year the first 
attempts were made for the improvement of the lower part of the river. This work 
continued from 1853 to 1858; but during this period no attempts were made to close 
or even contract the new inlet, but operations were mostly confined to the closure of 
several smaller inlets which had from time to time opened through the narrow beach 
immediately below the inlet (proper). 

" From this time (1858) until 1870 nothing more was done for the improvement of the 
Cape Fear River. During this interval the bars at the main entrance continued to 
deteriorate ; the eastern or main bar had been abandoned by shipping, having shoaled 
up to less than 7 feet, and through the western channel only 8 feet could be taken 
at low tide. 

"The small inlets through Smith's Island had gradually enlarged, until they had 
united into one common passage over 1,400 ya^'ds in width, or equal to that of the 
new inlet itself, and separated from the latter by what appeared at high water to be 
a mere sand spit, known as Zeke's Island. 

"In 1870 an appropriation of $100,000 was made by Congress for improving the 
Cape Fear River below Wilmington, Jj". C.,' and operations were commenced in Sep- 
tember of that year. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION -i^^il 

'' The main Tvork consisted in constructing a line of crib work, with superstructure 
brought to above high water, entirely across the space between Smith's and Zeke's 
Islands. This work (4,403 feet in length) was completed on June 30, 1873, thus closing 
all the breaks through the Smith's Island beach, except the new inlet itself. A con- 
tinuous sand beach has since formed on the outer or sea side of the work. Before 
reviewing the operations for the contraction of the inlet proper, it will be well to re- 
fer to one of the recommendations of a Board of Engineers on the improvement of 
the Cape Fear River, which was made at their final meeting in December, 1872. 

" The recommendation referred to is as follows: '5th. That the closing of New In- 
let is very desirable, and should be attempted as soon as funds are available ; that 
with this object a jetty should be commenced from Federal Point, and follow the 
line of shoals in a general southwesterly direction, as indicated on the latest map.' 

"In accordance with the above recommendation, work upon the jetty was com- 
menced during the very early part of July, 1873. It was decided to construct the 
first 500 feet of the jetty of cribs similar to those at the old work ; it being the inten- 
tion to afterward adopt some simpler and cheaper form of structure. As the work 
progressed a very serious deepening occurred in advance of the line of cribs. By the 
time 200 linear feet of cribs had been placed in position, cribs 12 feet in depth were 
required where there were originally only 6 feet of water, and when the last crib 
(completing the 500 feet) was placed in position, it was sunk in 19 feet of water, the 
original depth having been only 6 feet. 

''It was now determined to go no farther at present with the jetty, either in its pres • 
ent or any modified form of structure, but to wait until the effects of the work should 
develop themselves. 

"At the beginning of the fiscal year 1875-'76 the 500 feet of jetty at Federal Point 
had been standing for a period of eighteen months. Its effects upon the inlet and upon 
the river below had been carefully watched, and no new developments were antici- 
pated. During this interval a new channel had been cut behind the Horseshoe 
shoal, on the ojiposite side of the river. This channel was standing well, and was 
drawing a large quantity of water away from the inlet, and toward the western side 
of the river, and the time seemed ripe for attempting a further contraction of the inlet. 

" Proposals were accordingly invited for continuing work at the inlet, either by 
undertaking the closure of the inlet as a lump job by extending the old jetty to a 
specified length, or by constructing an apron entirely across the inlet. In case bids 
were to be made for the latter, bidders were to be governed by drawings (made under 
the direction of the officer in charge of the work) showing plans and sections of such 
an apron as seemed to the Government to be desirable, referring to dimensions only 
and not specifying the class of material to be used. 

"After some delay, caused by the rejection of one entire set of proposals, a contract 
was, oh the second opening of bids, awarded to Messrs. Bangs & Dolby, of New York 
State, for the construction of an apron entirely across the inlet. The apron was (in 
accordance with the Government drawings) to vary in width with the depth of the 
water at the various points on the proposed line of work. This gave at the deepest 
water a width of 70 feet ; at the shoalest, a width of 40 feet ; average width, 53 feet. 
This width was such that if the structure were brought up with a slope of one on two on 
the sea side, and one on one on the river side it would have a width of 16 feet at or- 
dinary low-water mark. 

" The apron was to be 4 feet in thickness, and was to consist of one layer of round tim- 
ber 1 foot in thickness, one layer of brush 1 foot in thickness, the remaining 2 feet 
to consist of stone. 

"The apron was to follow the line laid down by the officer in charge of the work, 
and the contractors were to guarantee the permanence of the structure for the period 
of one year. The line laid down for the apron was a broken one, and consisted of 
three sections. The first, 920 feet in length, was on the prolongation of the line of the 
Federal Point jetty ; the second, 1,588 feet in length, ran along the crest of the 6-foot 
22 CEN 



33^ 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



shoal, in a direction nearly tangential (a little outside) to Zeke's Island ; the third, 
1,844 feet in length, crossed the inlet channel, and rested on the shore of the island 
at the site of Woodbury's old wharf; total length of apron, 4,352 feet. 

"The contract for the execution of the above work was dated August 25, 1875. 
Work was commenced early in October, 1875, and the entire work satisfactorily com- 
pleted about the middle of June, 1876. The apron consists of successive rafts or 
mattresses of timber and brush sunk in juxtaposition on the line of work. The mat- 
tresses average about 40 feet in length, measured on the line of work, and in width 
correspond with the required width of apron. The timbers are placed lengthwise 
voiih the current, or across the line of work. 

*' But little if any settlement occurred after a mattress was once in position. There 
was, however, a tendency to scour in advance of the line of work, so that the individ- 
ual mattresses were sunk (on an average) in nearly 3 feet more water than the origi- 
nal soundings called for. 

''In calculating the required width of apron, before the work was commenced, an 
allowance of 2 feet was made for the anticipated scour, 

"There has also been a tendency to scour along both sides of the apron, particularly 
on the river side of the second section. This has been so slight as not to jeopardize 
the work, and shows that the first section of the apron, in conjunction with the Fed- 
eral Point jetty, is doing good service as a deflector of the ebb currents. 

"It is true that the apron alone contracts but little the area of the water-way of 
the inlet, but, looking to the future, we may regard it (as it was intended to be) as a 
substructure which may hereafter be raised to any desired height, even to the entire 
closure of the inlet, if funds are furnished for that purpose." 

Ifo. 23. Model of San Juan mining region. Contributed by Lieut. 
George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers. 

Cl ASS E. 
COUNTERPOISE OUN CARRIAaES AND PLATFORMS. 

No. 1. Model of a counterpoise gun carriage. Contributed by Captain 
King, Corps of Engineers, brevet major, U. S. A. 

This carriage belongs to a large class of designs, which have been presented from 
time to time, and the general object of which is to have the position occupied by the 
j)iece when "from battery" protected from the enemy's fire, thus enabling the men 
to work the guns in places where they would otherwise be useless ; e. g., when the posi- 
tion is within effective range of sharpshooters. 

This class of designs may be arranged in several subdivisions, differing materially 
in the manner in which they endeavor to effect their object. 

The largest subdivision and the one promising the greatest success is that called 
depressing gun carriages, where the gun is sheltered by being lowered behind the 
parapet as it moves to the rear under the action of the recoil, and of which the Mon- 
crieff" is a notable example. 

To this subdivision this carriage belongs. The inventor, Capt. W. R. King, United 
States Engineers, sought to accomplish two distinct objects in the construction of this 
carriage: (1) to obtain a carriage which would, under all circumstances, be adequate 
to its purpose, and (2) to utilize in the construction of these carriages the material of 
our present ones at a minimum of expense in the modifications required. 

To this end the carriages were to be made from the ordinary barbette carriages, with 
the following modifications : 

(1.) The rear ends of the chaLpsis rails were lowered by shortening the rear traverse 
forks. 




)N ANO ElEVAUON 



USE iyH-SAiilAi 



IPLAOEiEN 



^ O y^ 



INCH GUNS. 




The original oprfage, differing from tie engiaviiig ia certain 
ails, was fii«t mounted at Fort Foote, Md., and afterwards at 
Battery Hudson, N. Y. H. It was tested at various times from. 
Feb. 1869 to Feb, 1873. 

Oalibie of gun. 15-incli, 'Weight of gun, 50,000 lbs. 
Weight of shot, 450 lbs. Charge, 100 lbs. mammoth powder. 
Weight of counterpoise, 47,900 lbs. Slope of chassis, 20'. 
Elevations from -3" to +30 . Horizontal traverae 130°+. 
Number of oannouiers, 6 to 8. 

nnm time of loading, with 
Kumber of rounds fired with 100 lb. charges, 145. 
Uaximmn recoil, 17.5 feet. Descent of gun, 6 feet. 



COUNTERPOISE OUN-CARglME 
AND EyPLACEMEKT 

IS-IHCHGUNS. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 339 

(2.) The front ends of these rails were raised by lengthening the front support, giv- 
ing to the chassis an inclination of about IS'^. 

(3.) A wedge-shaped piece was cut oif the cheeks of the top carriage, so that its 
horizontal lines remained ur changed. 

(4.) A pulley and wire rope for a counterpoise were introduced, the i^intle being 
made larger and hollow for the rope to pass through it. 

With these exceptions the arrangement may remain as at present, the details of 
loading and maneuvering being unchanged. 

The carriage as thus constructed is mounted upon an ordinary platform, having a 
circular well 8 inches in diameter immediately beneath the pintle. In this well 
hangs the counterpoise, the weight of which results from the following formula : 

W= — '^ ; in which W represents the weight of the counterpoise ; t^, that of the 

gun and top carriage ; d, the vertical distance in feet through which the gun descends 
during the recoil; and D, the distance in feet through which the counterpoise rises. 

The wire rope from the counterpoise runs over a pulley between the front supports 
of the chassis, and is fastened to the lower part of the top carriage. 

When the gun is ''in battery," this rope draws nearly at right angles to the chas- 
sis, gradually changing its angle as the piece runs back, until fiually, before the gun 
stops, it draws parallel. By this meaus, combined with the elasticity of the counter- 
poise system, the shock, or verj^ sudden motion communicated to the gun and top 
carriage by the exjDlosion of the charge, is much more gradually transmitted to the 
counterpoise, the strain upon the rope being in fact almost constant. 

The necessary elasticity of the counterpoise system is obtained by the rope of 
steel wire, and by making the counterpoise in sections, with disks of rubber between 
them. Cranks and endless chains at the sides of the chassis furnish a means of ma- 
neuvering the gun when not firing, or when the recoil or counterpoise do not complete 
their work. ^ 

The recoil of the gun when fired carries it down to the loading position, where it 
is held by friction due to its own weight. 

When thrown "in gear" by turning the hand- wheels at the side of the top car- 
riage, the weight of the gun coming upon the truck wheels, the counterpoise over- 
comes the rolling friction and runs the gun up to the firing position. 

The gun is traversed in the ordinary manner, and the elevation is given by the 
same hand-wheels that run the gun up, as before described. 

The original carriage, differing from the model in certain details, was first mounted 
at Fort Foote, Md., in 1869. This carriage was made from a 10-inch barbette car- 
riage, which was originally intended to carry a 10-inch gun weighing about 17,000 
pounds and using a maximum charge of 40 pounds of powder. On the remodeled car- 
riage there was mounted a 15-inch gun weighing 50,000 pounds, andusiug a battering 
charge of 100 pounds of mammoth powder and a solid shot weighing 450 pounds. A 
counterpoise of 48,000 pounds was used. 

The Board of Engineers for Fortifications, by direction of the Chief of Engineers, 
convened at Fort Foote in August, 1869, and after having fired four experimental 
shots with charges of 100 pounds and solid shot of 450 pounds, and at elevations of 
30°, 15°, 0°, and — 3°, respectively, submitted a report embodying the following points : 

(1.) That they considered Major King's design a successful application of the prin- 
ciple of counterpoise ; but, 

(2.) The Board had some doubts as to the capability of the rope carrying the coun- 
terpoise to do the work required of it, and could not speak positively until the gun 
had been fired a greater number of times than in an ordinary engagement. 

(3.) That some defects in details which the firing had developed, but which were 
entirely independent of the principle, should be remedied in future constructions. 

(4.) The Board recommended a continuance of the trials. 

Accordingly in May, 1871, this Board was again convened at Fort Foote, and hav- 



340 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

ing fired six shots, witli the same charge as before, and at elevations ranging from 
— 3^ to 30°, reported that '^the carriage worked admirably within its recoil, and run- 
ning into battery," except in one case, which the Board ascertained, by firing another 
shot, was due to the imperfect sanding of the rails. 

The Board recommended that the carriage be subjected to the "severest test of 
actual war service," and that it be transferred from Fort Foote to some place where 
a greater horizontal field of fire could be obtained. These recommendations were 
concurred in and carried into effect. 

The gun and carriage were removed to Battery Hudson, New York, and in August, 
1871, a mixed Board was appointed to conduct the experiments. 

In view of the doubts expressed about the strength of the rope, the attention of 
the Board was particularly called to this point, and thfey were instructed to ascertain 
by actual trial the time required to replace a broken rope. The strength and dura- 
bility of the rope were so conclusively shown during the trials, that the Board did 
not deem it necessary to make the experiments contemplated in the instructions, and 
so reported. 

Before this Board 130 rounds were fired, shot at 450 pounds and shell at 318 pounds 
being used, 122 rounds with 100 pounds of powder and 8 with lesser charges. These 
shots were fired in every possible position of the gun, and under various conditions 
of the rails. The last shot deserves especial mention. The charge was 1€0 pounds^ 
the projectile a 450-pound shot. The elevation was 12°, making the line of fire nearly 
parallel to the chassis, which position is the most trying one for the counterpoise. 
The rails were covered with a coating of ice one-quarter inch in thickness, water 
having been previously poured over them. 

'* The gun recoiled 5 feet 2f inches beyond the end of the chassis, striking the 
ground and rebounding 2 feet 4 inches. The counter heurters were broken by the 
bolts being sheared off. The top carriage on its return was caught by the iron plate of 
th&left buffer, which jamming in the rear transom broke off one bolt and slewed the 
carriage slightly to right on the chassis. * * * The carriage was run into battery 
by starting it, and slewing it to the left with three handspikes. The carriage, except 
the devices for checking recoil, apparentley uninjuj^ed.'" (Official Firing Record.) 

The Board recommended that this carriage be referred, together with other devices 
which might be suggested, to a Board for competitive trial. 

This Board also i)rocured estimates as follows : 

For platform and parapet $4, 672 18 

For carriage complete 5, 650 00 

In the latter part of 1872 Generals Newton and Gillmore, in conducting some experi- 
ments for another purpose, used this carriage, firing 10 rounds (1 blank) with 100 
pounds powder and 450-pound shot. Some of these rounds were very trying ones 
upon the carriage. 

A Board, as referred to above, was convened in January, 1873, and proceeded to the 
examination of the various devices which were brought before them. King's carriage 
among the number. Before this Board four more shots were fired with service charges. 

The sense of the Board is expressed in the following resolution : 

"Besolved, That the Board, being of the opinion that the depressing gun carriage 
devised by Capt. W. R. King, United States Engineers, has already been sufficiently 
tested, and has been proved to be a good and reliable carriage for heavy guns, well 
adapted to certain localities, does therefore recommend that this carriage be subjected 
to such farther trials as maybe deemed necessary to determine its merits as compared 
with those of other carriages for heavy guns." (Report of the Board, Ord. Mem., 
No. 16.) 

This completes the history of the test that this carriage has undergone. 

One hundred and sixty-three shots are recorded, of which 142 were with service 
charges. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



341 



No. 2. Modelof a muzzle-pivoting, counterpoise gnu- sling. Contributed 
by Major King. 

This is described by Major King as follows : 

"This aflair is really a substitute for a carriage, since it has neither chassis nor top 
carriage. Its more prominent parts are described as follows : The weight of the gun 
is borne by a wire rope, one end of which is attached to a strong rail or curved link, 
looped over the trunnions, and the other to a counterpoise about equal to the weight 
of the gun . 

''It might be found desirable to work the guns in pairs, in which case the rope 
would connect two gnus in adjoining casemates, similarly suspended. 

"The rope passes over a pulley, directly over the trunnions, which has a lateral 
motion ujion rollers which run njion a horizontal traverse rail suspended from the in- 
trados of the casemate arch. (See side and rear elevations.) The rope then leads to 
a pulley directly over the throat of the embrasure, in order that the rope shall always 
draw at right angles to the traverse rail, and not interfere with the traversing of the 
gun. It then runs to the pier between the casemates, where it takes a turn around a 
windlass, and is then either attached directly to the counterpoise or connected to a 
similar system in the adjoining casemate, as before stated. 

" The windlass (not shown in the drawing) is so arranged that by turning it the gun 
may be elevated or depressed, but an increase or diminution of the strain upon the 
rope could not turn the windlass. This is required, since a counterpoise for the gun 
when it was at rest would not be sufficient when it was swinging as a pendulum. 

"To guide the muzzle of the piece and check the recoil, as well as to regulate its 
motion when swinging into battery, two parallel beams of wood or iron are placed 
over and nearly parallel with the axis of the i)iece, and attached at the front end to 
eye-bolts, which serve as a pintle, and by means of a compressor and guide-pieces, 
form a sliding connection with the harness or breeching of the piece. / 

"The harness is firmly secured to the trunnions and around the muzzle, and by 
tightening the nuts of the compressor the recoil may be checked at the proper jpoint 
for loading. The compressor may be so arranged that it will only be necessary to 
tighten one nut. It will be noticed that the pintle is in a very exposed situation, but 
if by chance a shot strikes so near the edge of the opening as to hit the pintle, it would 
probably dismount the gun whether the pintle was there or in ever so well protected 
a situation, and it is believed this would occur with any possible form of embrasure 
or system of mounting guns. 

" The gun may easily be traversed by train or watch tackles similar to those used in 
the Navy for like purposes. These will be attached to the guide pieces, and left in 
position when the piece is fired. The elevation of the piece will be adjust3:l by sim- 
ply turning the windlass already referred to, immediately above the counterpoise. 

" The loading will be effected in the same manner as in case of guns mounted in the 
ordinary way, the operation being rendered easier, however, by the steps under the 
muzzle of the gun. These steps answer the double purpose of loading stex)s, as just 
mentioned, and of buttresses to re-enforce the shield or frout of the casemate. There 
will also be room, since there is a chassis to provide for, to re-enforce the piers by a 
strong concrete backing inclosed in a thin casing of iron which would prevent any 
fragments from being detached by the shock transmitted through the masonry from 
projectiles striking in front. 

"The dotted line inclosing the piers in the plan, but not shown in elevation, shows 
the position which these casings might have, though if necessary they could occupy 
still more space in the casemates and communication arcLes. The sighting of the 
piece w^ll be done through openings between the compressor rails. 

" When the piece is tired the strain upon the rope will be at first diminished, but, 
as the recoil takes j)lace, it will increase again until it becomes somewhat greater 
than the weight of the gun. The extent of this variation will not, however, be so 



342 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

great or sudden as to cause any injury to the rope, pulleys, or other parts of the sys- 
tem. 

" To recapitulate, the advantages sought by this system of mounting casemate guns 
are : 

'' (1.) A reduction of the embrasure-opening to an absolute minimum. 

^'(2.) As a result of this, and of the additional room gained in the casemate, a" 
stronger shield and stronger fastenings. 

'' (3.) An increased elevation of the gun, this arrangement" giving 19° elevation and 
7° depression. 

" (4.) 13 and 15-inch guns may be placed in 10- inch casemates. 

''(5.) Cheapness, since this arrangement would problaby cost less than any muz- 
zle-pivoting carriage ever j)roposed, and even less than the ordinary carriage. 

"(6.) Greater elasticity of the system, and conseouently less concussion and less 
liability to jar and crack the masonry. 

"(7.) Less annoyance to the cannoneers from the blast of the piece." 

Ko. 3. Model of siege battery with balanced platforms. Designed 
and contributed by Capt. W. K. King, Corps of Engineers, brevet major, 
U. S. A. 

The parapet for this battery is made about 9 feet high, revetted in the rear to give 
a vertical face. Behind this parapet two longitudinal ramps are constructed, starting 
at about 6 feet below the terreplein and approaching each other so as to meet about 
4-^ feet below the interior crest. 

Eails are laid on these ramps, on which the carriages run up and down. 

Strong frames of timber are made in the form of a right-angled triangle, so arranged 
that when the hypothenuse is placed on the ramp the upper side is horizontal. A 
sufficient number of these frames are fastened together to form a strong truck, and 
mounted on wheels. On the horizontal top of this truck, an ordinary siege platform 
is laid. A windlass is placed at the intersection of the ramps. Ropes from the two 
platforms are carried to this windlass and wound in opposite directions, so that the 
turning of the windlass by means of a large X)ilot wheel runs one platform up and 
the other down. 

The carriages balance each other so that the only work to be performed at the 
wheel is to overcome the friction of the parts and lift the weight of one charge. 

The ropes are so regulated that when one carriage is at the bottom of the ramp, or 
its platform on the level of the terreplein, the other platform is at the proper level 
for firing. This battery is intended for use on works exposed to fire at short range. 
In the loading position the gun and men are protected by the parapet from direct 
and low curved fire, as in other depressing carriages. The guns are to be loaded and 
fired alternately, and Avhen not in use to be left at half height, in which position both 
are protected. 

No. 4. Model of sea-coast mortar-battery and loading truck. Designed 
. and contributed by Capt. W. E. King, Corps of Engineers, brevet 

major, U. S. A. 

The advantages sought in this construction are (1) to bring the mortar as low as 
possible, thus diminishing the labor of loading and making its protection easier; and 
(2) to improve upon the present method of maneuvering, especially as regards travers- 
ing. 

The carriage consists of a strong circular frame of wrought-iron, placed on a set of 
rollers, giving it a rotary motion about a vertical axis, and no other. To this frame 
are fastened two cheeks of peculiar construction. The trunnion beds have a motion 
up and down in the cheeks, like the cross-head of an engine. They are held in place 
by springs of rubber or steel, and when the mortar is fired, they move downward un- 
til the force of the recoil has been taken up in compressing the springs. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 343 

The elevation and direction are both given by a single handspike. The direction 
is obtained by graduations on the exterior circle of the carriage, and a fixed reference 
in the platform. 

No. 0. Model of a counterpoise depressing gun-carriage. Designed by 

the late Brig. Gen. E. E. De Eussy, Corps of Engineers. Contributed 
by the Engineer Department. 

This carriage was devised about the year 1835. 

The top carriage rests in front on the axle of a pair of large eccentric wheels, the 
rear end resting on small wheels running on curved wooden braces. 

In the firing position the axle of the eccentric wheels is in its highest position, and 
the small wheels on the highest point of the braces. As the gun recoils, the axle 
runs to its lowest position, and the truck wheels to the bottom of the braces, the re- 
coil being partly taken up by a counterpoise of metallic spokes on the side of the main 
wheels opposite the axle, and partly by frictional appliances. 

The gun is run into battery by a windlass and chain. 

It will be seen that this carriage embodies the principle which Captain Moncrieff 
has lately employed in the construction of his depressing carriage. 

Class F. 

MILITARY ENaiNEERING. 

No. 1. Models of ponton train as adopted and in use in the United 
States service, scale 1 to 12. Contributed by Maj. H. L. Abbot, Corps 
of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. Models made by First 
Sergeant G. B. Bensen, Battalion of Engineers. 

•These models comprise ; (a), one section of the advance-guard or canvas ponton 
train, consisting of only one type of wagon ; one loaded with a complete bay of bridge, 
one with trestles, and one with extra chess ; (&), one section of reserve or wooden pon- 
ton train, consisting of two types of wagons ; one loaded with a ponton, one with 
trestles, and one (same as advance-guard wagon) with chess ; (c), tool wagon ; and 
(d), traveling forge for use with either train. 

Each wagon carries its complete service. 

No. 2. Ponton train used in the United States service. 

Outside the Government building, near the Army hospital are shown: {a) a modern and 
(6) a canvas ponton wagon, (c) a trestle wagon, {d) a chess wagon, (e) a tool wagon, and 
(/) a traveling forge. These were taken from a train which is stored at Willets 
Point, New York Harbor. 

No. 3. Models of ponton bridges as adopted for the United States serv- 
ice, scale 1 to 12. Contributed by General Abbot. Models made by 
Sergeant Bensen. 

(a), Three bays of canvas ponton bridge, and (&), three bays of wooden ponton 
bridge. 

Each part shows the trestle and abutment bay. 

For further information concerning the bridge equipage and its service, see " U. S. 
Bridge Equipage and Drill" (Engineer publications), and "Duane's History of the 
United States Bridge Equipage," forming Paper No. 1 of the i^rinted papers of the 
'' Essay ons Club." 



344 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

No. 4. Model of a spar bridge. Contributed by General Abbot. 

This bridge is designed for use in an emergenc\^, where a narrow stream, not ford- 
able, is to be crossed. It needs no material but poles and lashings, and no tools but 
axes. 

No. 5. A wicker gabion, for temporary revetment. Contributed by 
General Abbot. 

For details of construction (drill, &c.), see ''Manual of Engineering," by Capt. O. 
H. Ernst, Corps of Engineers. 

No. 6. Iron gabion, for use where brush is not available, or for semi-per- 
manent revetment 5 also useful when the soil is fine sand which sifts 
through the wicker gabion. 

No. 7. Sap fagot, for use with either wicker or iron gabion. 

No. 8. Siege and mining tools as used in the United States service. Con- 
tributor, General Abbot. 

They comprise, 1 large and 2 small picks, 1 long and 1 short shovel, 1 spade, 
picket shovel, axes, hatchets, bill hook, gabion knife, sand scoops, pickets, tracing 
tape, and push pick. 

No. 9. Model of a block-house. Devised by Maj. William E. Merrill, 
Corps of Engineers, brevet colonel, U. S. A., and used in the Depart- 
ment of the Cumberland for the defense of railroad bridges. Model 
contributed by Colonel Merrill. 

Block-houses of this form were designed to be defended by musketry, and to with- 
stand the effects of field artillery. They are octagonal in form, this shape giving a 
stronger fire in the direction of the diagonals than the rectangular. They have two 
stories, the lower being formed of a double thickness of heavy logs, and loop-holed. 
The upper story is smaller, of lighter construction, and is intenrled to afford a look- 
out and more comfortable quarters when the garrison is not engaged, but to be aban- 
doned in action, the occupants retreating to the lower story. The block-honse is sur- 
rounded by a ditch, from the bottom of which an embankment is run to the under 
side of the loop-holes. Colonel Merrill designed several other block-houses for various 
purposes, descriptions and drawings of which may be found in the appendix to " Van 
Home's History of the Army of the Cumberland." 

C L ASS G. 
MISCELLANEOUS. 

No. 1. Publications of the Engineer Department, United 

States Army. 

[Contributed by General A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers.] 

No. 1. Bitumen : its varieties, properties, and uses. Compiled from various sources, 
by Lieut. H. Wager Halleck. 8°. Washington, 1841. 

No. 2. A special report on the sea-wall built in the year 1843 for the preservation of 
Ram Head at the northwest end of LovelFs Island. By Col. S. Thayer. 8°, 
Washington, 1844. 

No. 3. Sustaining walls: geometrical constructions to determine their thickness un- 
der various circumstances. By Capt. D. P. Woodbury. 8^. Washington, 1854. 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION 



345 



No. 4. Descriptiou of a system of military bridges witli India-rubber pontons. Pre- 
pared for the use of the United States Army. By Capt. George W. Cullum. 8°. 
New York and Philadelphia, 1849. 

No. 5. An analytical investigation of the resistance of piles to superincumbent press- 
ure. By Bvi;. Lieut. Col. Jaraes L. Mason. 8^. Washington, 1850. 

No. 6. Report on the effect of tiring with heavy ordnance from casemate embrasures, 
and also the effects of firing against the same embrasures with various kinds of 
missiles. By Bvt. Brig. Gen. Joseph G. Totten. 8°. Washington, 1857. 

No. 7. Treatise on the various elements of stability in the well-proportioned arch, 
with numerous tables of the ultimate and actual thrust. By Capt. D. P. Wood- 
bury. 8°. New York, 1858. 

No. 8. Official report to the United States Engineer Department of the siege and re- 
duction of Fort Pulaski, Ga., February, March, and April, 1862. By Brig. Gen. . 
Q. A. Gillmore. 8°. New York, 1864. 

No. 9. Practical treatise on limes, hydraulic cements, and mortars. By Q. A. Gill- 
more, A. M., brigadier-general, United States Volunteers, and major United States 
Corps of Engineers. 8°. 4th edition. New York^ 1872. 

No. 10. Longitude by lunar culminations. By Prof. W. H. C. Bartlett. 4^. Wash- 
ington, 1845. 

No. li. On the use of the zenith and equal altitude telescope in the determination of 
the latitude. By Capt. T. J. Lee. 4°. Washington, 

No. 12. Tables and formulae useful in surveying, geodesy and practical astronomy, 
including elements for the projection of maps, and instructions for field magnetic 
observations. By Thos. J. Lee. 8°. Third edition revised and enlarged. Wash- 
ington, 1873. 

No. 13. Report upon the physics and hydraulics of the Mississippi River; upon the 
protection of the alluvial region against overflow ; and upon the deepening of 
the mouths. By Capt. A. A. Humi)hreys and Lieut. H. L. Abbot. 4°. Phila- 
delphia, 1861. 

No. 14. Siege artillery in the campaigns against Richmond, with notes on the 15- 
inch gun, by Bvt. Brig. Gen. Henry L. Abbot. 8°. Washington, 1867. 

No. 15. On the use of the barometer on surveys and reconnaissances. With an ap- 
pendix. By R. S. Williamson, major, Corps of Engineers, brevet lieutenant-colo- 
nel, U. S. A. 4°. New York, 1868. 

No. 16. Engineer and artillery operations against the defenses of Charleston Harbor in 
1863 ; with a supplement. By Q. A. Gillmore, major of Engineers, brevet major- 
general, U. S. A. %^. New York, 1868. 

No. 17. Report on certain experimental and theoretical investigations relative to the 
quality, form, and combination of materials for defensive armor. By Bvt. Maj. 
W.R.King. 4°. Washington, 1870. 

No. 18. Report of the geological exj)loration of the fortieth parallel. By Clarence 
King, United States geologist. 
Volume III. Mining industry. By James D. Hague, with geological contributions 

by Clarence King. 4° and atlas. Washington, 1870. 
Volume V. Botany. By Sereno Watson, aided by Prof. Daniel C. Eaton and others. 
4°. Washington, 1871. 

No. 19. Report on beton agglom<Sre or coignet-b6ton and the materials of which it is 
made. By Q. A. Gillmore, major. Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 
8°. Washington, 1871. 

No. 20. A report on the defenses of Washington to the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., 
By Bvt. Maj. Gen. J. G. Barnard. 4°. Washington, 1871. 

No. 21. Report on the fabrication of iron for defensive purposes and its uses in modern 
fortifications, especiallyin works of coast defense. By Bvt. Maj. Gen. J. G. Barnard? 
Bvt. Maj. Gen. H. G. Wright, and Bvt. Lieut. Col. Peter S. Michie. With a supple- 
ment. 4°. Washington, 1871, 



346 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

No. 22. Report on the North Sea Canal of Holland, and on the improvement of navi- 
gation from Rotterdam to the sea. By Bvt. Maj. Gen. J, G. Barnard. 4°. Wash- 
ington, 1872. 

EXPLORATIONS AND SURVEYS. 

History of the expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clarke to the 
sources of the Missouri, thence across the Rocky Mountains, and down the River 
Columbia to the Pacific Ocean. Performed during the years 1804-5-6. By order 
of the Government of the United States. 8°. 2 volumes, Philadelphia, 1814. 

Exploratory travels through the western territories of North America, comprising a 
voyage from Saint Louis, on the Mississippi, to the source of that river, and a 
journey through the interior of Louisiana and the northeastern provinces of New 
Spain. Performed in the years 1805, 1806, and 1807, by order of the Government 
of the United States. By Zebulon Montgomery Pike, major Sixth Regiment 
United States Infantry. 4°. London, 1811. 

Account of an expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, performed in the 
years 1819, 1820. By order of the Hon. J. C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, under the 
command of Maj. S. H. Long, of the United States Topographical Engineers. Com- 
piled from the notes of Major Long, Mr. T. Say, and other gentlemen of the party, 
by Edwin James, botanist and geologist to the expedition. 8°. 3 volumes. 

Narrative of an expedition to the source of Saint Peter's River, Lake "VVinnepeek, Lake 
of the Woods, &c., performed in the year 1823, by order of the Hon. J. C. Calhoun, 
Secretary of War, under the command of Stephen H. Long, United States Topo- 
graphical Engineers. Compiled from the notes of Major Long, Messrs. Say, Keat- 
ing, and Colhoun, by William H. Keating, A. M., &c. 8°. 2 volumes. 

Geological report of an examination made in 1834 of the elevated country between 
the Missouri and Red Rivers. By G. W. Featherstonhaugh, United States geolo- 
gist. 8°. Washington, 1835. 

Report intended to illustrate a map of the hydrographical basin of the Upper Mis- 
sissippi River, made by J. N. Nicollet while in employ under the Bureau of the 
Corps of Topographical Engineers, 1838-1843. 8^. Washington, 1845. 

Report of the exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the year 1842, and to 
Oregon and North California in the years 1843-'44. By Bvt. Capt. J. C. Fremont. 
8°. Washington, 1845. 

New Mexico and California, containing : 
Notes of a military reconnaissance from Fort Leavenworth in Missouri, to San Diego 
in California, including part of the Arkansas, Del Norte, and Gila Rivers. By 
Lieut. Col. W. H. Emory. 
Report of Lieut. J. W. Abert of his examination of New Mexico in the years 

1846-'47. 
Report of Lieut. Col. P. St. George Cooke of his march from Santa F6, New Mexico, 

to San Diego, Upper California. 
Journal of Capt. A. R. Johnson, First Dragoons. 8°. Washington, 1848. 

Report of the survey of the northern and western boundary line of the Creek country, 
1849. By Bvt. Capt. L. Sitgreaves and Lieut. J. C. Woodruff, Topographical En- 
gineers, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 1858. 

Report on the route from Fort Smith, Ark., to Santa F6, N. Mex., made in 1849, by 
J. H. Simpson, lieutenant, Topographical Engineers, U. S. A. 8^. Washington, 
1850. 

Reports of the Secretary of War with reconnaissances of routes from San Antonio to 
El Paso. By Bvt. Lieut. Col. J. E. Johnston, Lieut. W. F. Smith, Lieut. F. T. 
Bryan, Lieut. N. H. Michler, and Capt. S. G. French, of Quartermaster's Depart- 
ment. Also the report of Capt. R. B. Marcy's route from Fort Smith to Santa F6; 
and the report of Lieiit. J. H. Simpson, of an expedition into the Navajo country; 
and the report of Lieut. W. H. C. Whiting's reconnaissances of the western fron- 
tier of Texas. 8°. Washington, 1850. 



THE EXG INKER SECTION. 347 

Exploration aud survey of the valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah, including a rec- 
onnaissance of a new route through the Rocky Mountains. By Howard Stans- 
bury, captain, Corps of Topographical Engineers, U. S. A. 8^. Philadelphia, 
1852. 

Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana in the year 1852, by Randolph B. Marcy, 
captain, Fifth Infantry, U. S. A., assisted by George B. McClellan, brevet ca}3- 
tain. United States Engineers. 8°. Washington, 1854. 

Report of an expedition down the Zuni and Colorado Rivers, by Capt. L. Sitgreaves, 
Corps Topographical Engineers. 8°. Washington, 1853. 

Reports of explorations and surveys to ascertain the most jjracticable and economical 
route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, made under 
the direction of the Secretary of War, in 1853-'54-'55. 13 volumes. 4°. Wash- 
ington, 1855-'60. 

Report on the United States and Mexican boundary survey made under the direction 
of the Secretary of the Interior. By William H. Emory, major, First Cavalry, 
and United States commissioner. 3 volumes. 4°. Washington, 1857-59^ 

Preliminary report of explorations in Nebraska and Dakota in the years 1855- 56-'57. 
By Lieut. G. K. Warren, Topographical Engineers, U. S. A. Reprint. 8°. Wash- 
ington, 1875. 

Report of a reconnaissance from Fort Riley to Bridger's Pass and return, made in 
1856, by Francis T. Bryan, lieutenant, Topographical Engineers, U. S. A. 8°. 
Washington, 1857. 

Report of a survey for an interoceanic ship- canal across the Isthmus of Darien, con- 
necting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 1857-59. By N. Michler, lieutenant, To- 
pographical Engineers, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 1861. 

Annual report of Capt. A. A. Humphreys, topographical Engineers, in charge of office of 
orations and surveys. War Department. December, 1858. 8°. Washing- 
ton, 1869. 

Report upon the Colorado River of the West, explored in 1857 and 1858 by Lieut. 
Joseph C. Ives. 4°. Washington, 1861. 

Report of explorations across the great basin of the Territory of Utah, for a direct 
wagon route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, in Carson Valley, in 1859, By Capt. J. 
H. Simpson, Corps of Topographical Engineers, U. S. A., now colonel of Engi- 
neers, brevet brigadier-general, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 1876. 

Report of the exploring expedition from Santa F6, N. Mex., to the junction of the 
Grand and Green Rivers of the Great Colorado Of the West in 1859, under the com- 
mand of J. N. Macomb, captain Topographical Engineers (now colonel of Engi- 
neers), with geological report by Prof. J. S. Newberry, geologist of the expedition. 
40. Washington, 1876. 

Report on the construction of a military road from Fort Walla- Walla to Fort Benton, 
by Capt. John Mullan, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 1863. 

Report on the exploration of the Yellowstone River, by Bvt. Brig. Gen. W. F. Raynolds, 
with geological report of the exploration of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers. 
By Dr. F. V. Hayden, assistant, 1859-'60. 8°. Washington, 1868-'69. 

Report of a reconnaissance of the Yukon River, Alaska Territory, July to September, 
1869, By Capt. Charles W. Raymond. 8°. Washington, 1871. 

Report of a reconnaissance of the basin of the Upper Yellowstone in 1871. By Capt. 
J. W. Barlow, assisted by Capt. D. P. Heap. 8°. Washington, 1872. 

Report of Lieut. Gustavus C. Doane upon the so-called Yellowstone expedition of 1870. 
8°. Washington, 1873. 

Report on the. Yellowstone expedition of 1873, by D. S. Stanley, colonel, Twenty-second 
Infantry, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 1874. 

Report of a reconnaissance in the Ute country, made in the year 1873. By Lieut. E. 
H. Ruffner. Washington, 1874. 



348 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

Eeport of a reconnaissauce of tlie Black Hills of Dakota made in the summer of 1874. 
By William Ludlow, captain of Engineers, brevet lieutenant-colonel, U. S. A. 4°. 
Washington, 1875, 
Report of a reconnaissance of the Missouri River in 1872 by Thomas P. Roberts, as- 
sistant engineer. Northern Pacific Railroad. 8°. Washington, 1875. 
Report upon the reconnaissance of Northwestern Wyoming, including Yellowstone 
National Park, made in the summer of 1873. By William A. Jones, captain of En- 
gineers, U. S. A. 8°, Washington, 1875. 
Report of an expedition up the Yellowstone River, made in 1875, by James W. For- 
syth, lieutenant-colonel and military secretary, and F. D. Grant, lieutenant-colo- 
nel and aide-de-camp, under the orders of Lieut. Gen. P. H. Sheridan. 8°. Wash- 
ington, 1875. 
Geographical explorations and surveys west of the one hundredth meridian, in charge 
of Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, viz : 

Preliminary report upon a reconnaissance through Southern and Southeastern Ne- 
vada made in 1869, by First Lieut. George M.Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U. 
S. A., assisted by First Lieut. D. W. Lock wood. Corps of Engineers, L^. S. A. 4°- 
Washington, 1875. 

Preliminary report concerning explorations and surveys principally in Nevada and 
Arizona, conducted under the immediate direction of First Lieut. George M- 
Wheeler, Corps of Engineers. 1871. 4°. Washington, 1872. 

Progress-report upon geographical and geological explorations and surveys west of 
the one hundredth meridian in 1872. By First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps 
of Engineers, in charge. 4°. Washington, 1874. 

Report upon the determination of the astronomical co-ordinates of the primary sta- 
tions at Cheyenne, Wyo., and Colorado Springs, Colo., made duringthe years 1872 
and 1873. First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, iu charge, Dr. F. 
Kampf and J. H. Clark, civilian astronomical assistants. 4°. Washington, 1874. 

Report upon ornithological specimens collected iu the years 1871, 1872, and 1873. 
By Dr. H. C. Yarrow and Prof. H. W. Henshaw. 8°. Washington, 1874. 

Catalogue of plants collected iu the years 1871, 1872. and 1873, with descriptions of 
new species. By Mr. Sereno Watson and Dr. J. T. Rothrock. 8^. Washington, 
1874. 

Preliminary report upon invertebrate fossils collected by the expeditions of 1871, 
1872, and 1873, with descriptions of new species. By C. A. White, M. D. 8^. Wash- 
ington, 1874. 

Systematic catalogue of the vertebrata of the Eoceue of New Mexico collected in 
1874. By E. D. Cope, A. M. 8°. Washington, 1875. 

Instructions for taking and recording meteorological observations, and for preserv- 
ing and repairing the instruments ; prepared for the use of field and astronomical 
parties, <Sr.c., by First Lieutenants R. L. Hoxie and William L. Marshall. 8^. 
Washington, 1875. 
Report ujion geographical and geological explorations and surveys west of the one 

hundredth meridian : 

Volume III. Geology. 4°. Washington, 1875. 
Volume V. Zoology. 4°. Washington, 1875. 

Annual Reports for the years 1873, 1874, 1875. 8°. Washington, 1873-'74-'75. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Reports of Board of Engineers on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. 8°. 1826. 

Report of examinations and surveys, with a view of improving the navigation of 
the Holstou and Tennessee Rivers in 1830. By S. H. Long, brevet lieutenant-col- 
onel. Topographical Engineers, 8°. Washington, 1875. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



349 



Eeport" in reference to the canal to connect the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal with the 
city of Baltimore. By Col. J. J. Ahert, 1838. Reprinted for the use of the Engi- 
neer Department, U. S. A. 4^. Washington, 1874. 

Reports on the construction of the piers of the aqueduct of the Alexandria Canal 
across the Potomac River at Georgetown, D. C. By Maj. William TurnbuU. 
1835-1840. Reprint. 4^. Washington, 1873. 

Essay on meteorological observations, by J. X. Nicollet, esq. Printed by order of 
the War Department. 8°. Washingt<m, 1839. 

Report of General^J. G. Totteu, Chief Engineer, on the subject of national defenses. 
8°. Washington, 1851. (Bound in " Miscellaneous" volume.) 

Report on the art of war in Europe in 1854, 1855, and 1856, by Maj. Richard Dela- 
field, from his notes and observations made as a member of a " Military commis- 
sion to the theater of war in Europe.'' 4^. Washington, 1860. 

Systems of military bridges in use by the United States Army, those adopted by the 
great European powers, and such as are employed in British India, with direc- 
tions for the preservation, destruction, and re-establishment of bridges. By 
Brig. Gen. George W. Cullum. 8^. New York, 1863. 

Torpedoes : their invention and use, from the first application to the art of war to 
the present time. For the use of the officers of the Corps of Engineers. By W. 
R. Kingj captain of Engineers and brevet major, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 
1866. 

Extracts from '' Constructions of iron applied to fortifications, by O. Giese, captain 
of the royal Prussian engineers, and company commander." Translated by G. 
Weitzel, captain, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 8^. Wash- 
ington, 1867. (Bound m "Miscellaneous" volume.) 

Reports on experimental firing with modern sea-coast ^artillery to determine the ele- 
ments of the trajectory in both direct and ricochet firing, &c. Compiled by 
Bvt. Maj. W. R. King. With a supplement by Maj. C. B. Reese. 8^. Washing- 
ton, 1868. 

Report on blasting operations at Lime Point, Cal., in 1863. By G. H. Mendell, major 
of Engineers, brevet lieutenant-colonel, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 1868. (Bound 
with "Miscellaneous" volume.) 

Memoir on foundations in compressible soils, with experimental tests of pile driving 
and formula for resistance deduced therefrom. Compiled by Bvt. Maj. Gen. 
Richard Delafield. 8*^. Washington, 1«68. (Bound in "Miscellaneous" vol- 
ume.) 

Counteri)oise gun-carriages and platforms. By Capt. W. R. King. 4"^. Washington, 
1869. 

Report upon the removal of Blossom Rock in San Francisco Harbor, California. By 
R. S. Williamson, major, Corps of Engineers, brevet lieutenant-colonel, U. S. A., 
and W. H. Heuer, lieutenant Corps of Engineers. 4^. Washington, 1871. 

Organization of the bridge equipage of the United States Army, with directions for 
the construction of military bridges. Prepared by a board of Engineer officers. 
8°. With volume of plates. Washington, 1870. 

Report ui^on the decay and preservation of timber. By T. J. Cram, colonel. United 
States Corpsof Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 1871. 
(Bound in '' Miscellaneous " volume.) 

Report upon experiments made by Assistant W. H. Hearding, upon the compressive 
power of pine and hemlock timber, under the direction of Maj. D. C. Houston, 
Corps of Engineers. 8°. Washington, 1872. (Bound in " Miscellaneous" vol- 
ume.) 

Design for an improved submarine tunnel comprising a brick arch within a cast or 
wrought iron skin, laid in a trench dredged for that purpose. By Lieut. Col. J. 
G. Foster, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 4'=. Washington, 
1872. 



350 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

Catalogue of the mean declinations of 981 stars between twelve hours and twenty-six 
hours of right ascension, and thirty degrees and sixty degrees of north de- 
clination, for January 1, 1875. Prepared under the direction of Bvt. Brig. Gen. 
C. B. Comstock, U. S. A. By Prof. T. H. Satford. 4°. Washington, 1873. 

Translation of notes accompanying drawings concerning the construction of iron lock 
gates, for the harbors of Weser River, Germany. By Bvt. Maj. Gen. G. Weitzel, 
U. S. A. 40. Washington, 1873. 

Report ux?on the results of firings to determine the pressure of the blast from 15-inch 
smooth-bore guns, made at Staten Island, New York Harbor, in 1872 and 1873. 
By John Newton, lieutanant-colonel of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A., 
and Q. A. Gillmore, major of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 8°. Wash" 
ington, 1874. (Bound in ''Miscellaneous" volume.) 

Report of a tour of inspection of European light-house establishments, made in 1873. 
By Maj. George H. Elliot, Corps ol Engineers, U. S. A., member and Engineer 
secretary of the Light-House Board. 8°. Washington, 1874. 

An essay concerning important physical features exhibited in the valley of the Min- 
nesota River, and upon their signification. By G. K. AVarren, major of Engineers 
and brevet major-general, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 1874. (Bound with ''Mis- 
cellaneous" volume.) 

Report on the compressive strength, specific gravity, and ratio of absorption of vari- 
ious kinds of building stone from dift'erent sections of the United States, tested at 
Fort Tompkins, Staten Island, New York. By Q. A. Gillmore, lieutenant-colonel, 
Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, U. S. A. 8°. Washington, 1874. 
(Bound in "Miscellaneous" volume.) 

Method of sinking cribs, devised by D. C. Houston, major of Engineers, brevet colonel, 
U. S. A. 40, Washington, 1874. 

Report of the Board of Commissioners on the Irrigation of the San Joaquin, Tulare, 
and Sacramento Valleys, of the State of California. Lieut. Col. B. S. Alexander, 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., Maj. George H. Mendell, Corps of Engineers, U. S. 
A., Prof. George Davidson, United States Coast Survey, commissioners. 8°. 
Washington, 1874. 

Report on the effects of the sea water and exposure upon the iron pile shafts of the 
Brandywine shoal light-house. By John D. Kurtz, lieutenant-colonel of Engi- 
neers, brevet colonel, U. S. A., and Micah R. Brown, captain of Engineers. 4^^. 
Washington, 1874. 

Re]3ort of the Commission of Engineers upon the Reclamation of the Alluvial Basin 
of the Mississippi River. Maj. G. K. Warren, Maj. H. L. Abbot, and Capt. W. H. 
H. Benyaurd, Corps of Engineers, and Jackson E. Sickels and Paul O. Hebert, 
civil engineers, commissioners. 8^. Washington, 1875. 

Report upon the applicability of movable hydraulic gates and dams to the improve- 
ment of the Ohio River. By G. Weitzel, major of Engineers, brevet major-gen- 
eral, U. S. A., and W. E. Merrill, major of Engineers and brevet colonel, U. S. A. 
8^. Washington, 1875. 

Memoranda relating to the improvement of the entrance to the Mississippi River by 
jetties. By A. A. Humphreys, brigadier-general and Chief of Engineers. 8°. 
Washington, 1875. 

Report on the transportation route along the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers in the State 
of Wisconsin between the Mississippi River and Lake Michigan. By Gouverneur 
K. Warren, major of Engineers and brevet major-general, U. S. A. 8°. Washing- 
ton, 1876. 

Annual re]3orts of the Chief of Engineers to the Secretary of War for the years 1866, 
1867, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, and 1875. 

Sketch showing the proposed line of water communication between the Mississippi 
River and the Atlantic Ocean by way of the Tennessee and Coosa Rivers and the 
rivers of Georgia and connecting canals. Under direction of Maj. Walter Mc- 
Farland, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 8 sheets. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 35 I 

Plans of different wooden structures used in improving harbors and rivers, viz : 

Plans of different wooden structures used in improving harbors on Lake Michigan. 
Plan of crib work as adopted by Bvt. Col. J. B. Wheeler, major of Engineers, for 

piers of Lake Michigan harbors. ^ 

Plan of revetment for the Saint Mary's Falls Ship Canal. 
Improvement of the Falls of the Ohio. Plans, sections, and elevations of new locks 
of the Louisville and Portland Canal. Under the direction of Maj. G. Weitzeb 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 1870-71. 8 sheets. 
Sketches illustrative of reports and projects for the improvement of certain rivers 

and harbors. 
Record of experimental firing at Fort Monroe, Va., and Fort Delaware, Del., November 
and December, 1868. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC VIEWS. 

Photographs taken in connection with the geological exploration of the fortieth 
parallel. Clarence King, United State geologist, in charge. 

Volume I. Views in Wyoming and Northwestern Colorado. 

Volume II. Views in Northern Utah and Idaho. 

Volume III. Views in Nevada and Eastern California. 

One set (216, two boxes) stereoscopic views. 
Photographic views obtained in connection with geographical and geological explora- 
tions and surveys west of the one hundredth meridian, Lieut. George M. Wheeler, 
Corps of Engineers, in charge: 

One volume, 50 views, seasons of 1871-'72-'73. 

One volume, 25 views, seasons of 1871- 72-'73-'74. 

One set (100) stereoscopic views, seasons of 1871-72-73. 

One set (50) stereoscopic views, seasons of 1871-'72-73-'74. 

MILITARY MAPS. 

Action at Drainsville, Va., December 20, 1861. United States forces commanded by 
Brig. Gen. E. O. C. Ord. 

Atlanta, siege of, by the United States forces under command of Maj. Gen. W. T. 
Sherman, from the passage of Peach-Tree Creek, July 19, 1864, to the commence- 
ment of the movement upon the enemy's lines of communication south of Atlanta, 
August 26, 1864, from a map prepared by Capt. O. M. Poe, Corps of Engineers, U. 
S.A. 

Ai'my of the Cumberland, prepared to exhibit the campaigns of, under the command 
of Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas, compiled under the direction of Bvt. Maj. Gen. Z. B. 
Tower, chief engineer, Military Division of the Tennessee. 

Atlanta campaign, Map I, embracing the region from the Tennessee River to the Oos- 
tanula River, and exhibiting the works of the United States and Confederate 
forces, with the lines of march of the United States forces under command of 
Maj. Gen. W. T. Sherman, 1864. Compiled in the Engineer Bureau, War Depart- 
ment, in 1875. 

Atlanta campaign. Map III, includes the region extending from Rome, Kingston, and 
Cassville on the north, to include Dallas and Marietta on the south, and exhibits 
the works of the United States and Confederate forces, with the lines of march 
of the United States forces under command of Maj. Gen. W. T. Sherman in 1864. 
Compiled in the Engineer Bureau, War Department, in 1876. 

Atlanta campaign. Map IV, illustrating the military operations of the, embracing 
the region from Pinne, Lost, and Kennesaw Mountains, south, to include Atlanta 
and its environs, exhibiting the lines of oi^erations at Pine, Lost, and Kennesaw 
Mountains, at Smyrna camp ground, along the Chattahoochie River, and the in- 
vestment of Atlanta, Maj. Gen. W.T. Sherman, commanding, 1864. Compiled in 
the Engineer Bureau, War Department, in 1874. 



352 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

Armies of the Potomac and James, maps illustrating the operations of, from May 4, 
1864, to April 9, 1865, including the battle-fields of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, 
North Anna, Totopotomoy, Cold Harbor, siege of Petersburg and Eichmond, bat- 
tle-fields of Five Forks, Jetersville and Sailors Creek, High Bridge, Farmville, 
and Appomattox Court-House; also Harper's Ferry, Antietam, ChancoUorville, 
Fredericksburg, and South Mountain, with index sheet. From surveys made 
under direction of Bvt. Brig. Gen.N. Michler and Bvt. Lieut. Col. P. S. Michie, 
Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 

Battle-field of Big Black Eiver Bridge, Mississippi, May 17, 1863. Prepared under 
direction of Lieut. P. C. Hains, United States Engineers. 

Blakely : captured by the Army of West Mississippi, April 9, 1865, showing the Con- 
federate line of works, and the position of, and approaches by, the United States 
forces. 

Charleston City and Harbor, South Carolina, showing the defenses of; also the works 
erected by the United States forces in 1863 and 1864. By Maj. Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, 
United States Volunteers. 

Chattanooga, battle-field of; prepared under the direction of Brig. Gen. W. F. Smith, 
chief engineer, Military Division Mississippi, in 1864. Published, by authority of 
the honorable Secretary of War, in the office of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., 
in 1875. 

Columbus, Ky., fortifications at ; surveyed under the direction of Brig. Gen. George 
W. Cullum, chief of staff and Engineers, Department of 'the Mississippi. 

Corinth and Monterey : showing the lines of intrenchments made and the routes fol- 
lowed by the United States forces under commaud of Maj. Gen. Halleck, U. S. A., 
in their advance upon Corinth in May, 1862. Surveyed under the direction of Col. 
George Thorn, chief of Topographical Engineers, Department of the Mississippi. 

Fort Sumter, S. C, at the time of its capture, February 18, 1865, showing the effects of 
the bombardment from Morris Island. By Maj. Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, commanding 
Department of the South. 

Fort Fisher, plans and sections of: carried by assault by the LTnited States forces, 
Maj. Gen. A. H. Terry commanding, January 15, 1865. Surveyed under the direc- 
tion of Bvt. Brig. Gen. C. B. Comstock, A. D. C. and chief engineer. 

Fort Fisher and vicinity :. surveyed under the direction of Bvt. Brig. Gen. C. B. Com- 
stock, A. D. C. and chief engineer. 

Franklin, battle-field in front of. The United States forces under command of Maj. 
Gen. J. M. Schofield, November 30, 1864. Compiled under the direction of Col. 
W. E. Merrill, chief engineer. Department of the Cumberland. 

Fisher's Hill and Cedar Creek, Va., battle-field of, September 22, 1864, October 19, 1864. 
Prepared by Bvt. Lieut. Col. G. L. Gillespie, major of Engineers, U. S. A., from 
surveys made under his direction by order of Lieut. Gen. P. H. Sheridan, and un- 
der the authority of the honorable the Secretary of War, and the Chief of Engi- 
neers, U. S. A., 1873. 

Harper's Ferry, Va., including Maryland, Loudon, and Bolivar Heights, and portions 
of South and Short Mountains, with the positions of the defensive works, surveyed 
under the direction of Capt. N. Michler, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., August 
and September, 1863. 

Island No. 10 and New Madrid ; also the operations of the United States forces under 
command of General John Pope against these positions. 

Knoxville, Tenn., approaches and defenses of: showing the positions occupied by the 
United States and Confederate forces during the siege. Surveyed under the di- 
rection of Capt. O. M. Poe, chief engineer, Department of the Ohio, during Decem- 
ber, January, and February, l-i63-'64. 

Map showing the routes followed by the Army of the Tennessee under the command 
of Maj. Gen. U. S. Grant, in its march from Milliken's Bend to the rear of Vicks- 
burg, in April and May, 1863. Surveyed, compiled, and drawn under the direction 
of Lieut. Col. J. H. Wilson, A. I. G. and first lieutenant of Engineers. 



THE EXGIXEER SECTIOX. 



53 



Mobile, Confederate defenses of, occupied by tbe United States forces under Maj. Gen. 
E. R. S. Cauby. 

Mobile, defenses of tbe city of 

Marcbes of the United States forces under tbe command of Maj. Gen. W. T. Sber- 
man, U. S. A., during the years 1863, 1864, 1865. Compiled by order of General 
Sherman under tbe direction of Bvt. Maj. W. L. B. Jenney, captain, A. D. C, U. 
S. A., in 1865. 

Xasbville, battle-fields in front of: United States forces, commanded by Maj. Gen. 
George H. Thomas, December 15 and 16, 1864. 

Part of the operations of the Army of Virginia nnder command of Maj. Gen. Jobn 
Pope, showing tbe battle-field of Cedar Mountain, August 9, 1862, i)ositious of tbe 
troops on the night of August 27 and at sunset August 28, 1862, and tbe battle-field 
of Manassas, Va., at tbe close of tbe action on tbe 29th of August, 1862. 

Peninsula. Campaign of tbe Army of tbe Potomac under tbe command of Maj. Gen. 
George B. McClellan, U. S. A. Map Xo. 1, Yorktown to Williamsburg; Map Xo. 
2, Williamsburg to White House ; Map Xo. 3, White House to Harrison's Landing. 
Prepared by command of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan. Brig. Gen. A. A. Hum- 
pbreys, chief of Topographical Engineers, Army of the Potomac. 

Port Hudson and vicinity. Prepared by order of Maj. Gen. X. P. Banks under tbe di- 
rection of Maj. D. C. Houston and Capt. P. C. Hains, Corps of Engineers, 1864. 

Plan of Fort Henry and its outworks. Drawn under the direction of Lieut. Col. J. B. 
McPberson, A. D. C. and captain of Engineers. 

Plan of Fort Donelson and its outworks, surveyed under the direction of Lieut. Col. 
J. B. McPberson, A. D. C. and captain of Engineers. 

Roanoke Island, battle-field of, February 8, 1862. Drawn by Lieutenant Andrews^ 
Xintb Xew York Regiment. 

Siege operations at Spanish Fort, Mobile Bay, by tbe United States forces under Major- 
General "Cauby, captured by the Army of West Mississij)pi on the night of April 
8 and 9, 1865. 

Sketch showing the relative positions of Forts Henry and Donelson, also roads con- 
necting the two positions, drawn under tbe direction of Lieut. Col. J. B. McPber- 
son, A. D. C. and captain of Engineers. 

Shiloh, battle-field of, near Pittsburgh Landing, Tenn., showing tbe positions of the 
Unit d States forces under tbe command of Maj. Gen. U. S. Grant, United States 
Volunteers, and Maj. Gen. D. C. Buell, United States Volunteers, on the 6tb and 
7tb of April, 1862, surveyed under the direction of Col. George Thorn, chief of 
Topographical Engineers, Department of tbe Mississippi. 

Virginia, Central, showing Lieut. Gen. U. S. Grant's campaign and the marches of 
tbe armies under bis command in 1864-'65. Engiueer Bureau, War Department. 

Vicksburg, siege of, by the United States forces under tbe command of Maj. Gen. U. 
S. Grant, United Statei Volunteer.-*, Maj. F. E. Prime, cbief Engineer; surveyed 
and constructed under the direction of Capt. C. B. Comstock, United States Engi- 
neers, and Lieut. Col. J. H. Wilson, A. I. G., first lieutenant Engineers. 

Winchester, Va., battle-field of, September 19, 1864. Prepared by Bvt. Lieut. Col. G. 
L. Gillespie, major of Engineers, L^. S. A., from surveys made under bis directions 
by order of Lieut. Gen. P. H. Sheridan, and under tbe authority of the honorable 
Secretary of War, and the Cbief of Engineers, U. S. A., 1873. 

Waj-nesborough, Va., battle-field of, March 2, 1865. Prepared by Bvt. Lieut. Col. G. L. 
Gillespie, major of Engineers, from surveys made under his direction by order of 
Lieut. Gen. P. H. Sheridan, and under the authority of tbe honorable Secretary 
of War, and the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A. 

Yorktown, Va., siege of. Conducted by the Army of the Potomac, under command 
of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, U. S. A., April 5 to May 3, 1862. Prepared 
under the direction of Brig. Gen. J. G. Barnard, chief engineer, by Lieut. H. L. 
Abbot, Topographical Engineers, A. D. C. 
23 CEX 



254 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS. 

Arizona, Department of, slieets 1 and 3. Compiled by Lieut. J. C. Mallery, Corps of 
Engineers, and revised to 1875. 

Augusta Countj", Virginia, by Jed Hotclikiss, 1865. 

Black Hills, reconnaissance of, with troops under tlie command of Lieut. Col. G. A. 
Custer, Seventh Cavalry, by Capt. William Ludlow, Corps of Engineers, U. S. 
A., 1874. Three sheets. 

Chicago Harbor and Bar, Illinois, from survey made in August and September, 1858, 
by Bvt. Lieut. Col, J. D. Graham, Topographical Eugineers, U. S. Army. 

Charleston Harbor and adjacent coast and country. South Carolina, in 1823, 1824, and 
1825, by Capt. Hartman Bache, Topographical Engineers, U. S. A. 

Chickasaw Nation and contiguous portions of the Indian Territory. Prepared by 
Lieut. E. H. Ruffner, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., 1872. 

Des Moines Eapids, with plan, profiles, and cross-sections of the canal for its improve- 
ment, by Bvt. Maj. Gen. J. H. AVilson, lieutenant-colonel Thirty-fifth Infantry, 
U. S. A. 

Dakota Territory. Compiled under the direction of Capts. D. P. Heap and William 
Ludlow, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 

Erie Harbor, Pennsylvania. Made under the direction of Bvt. Col. W. F. Raynolds, 
major of Engineers, U. S. A., in 1866. 

Florida. Complied in the Bureau of Topographical Engineers in 1856. 

Fort Dodge to Camp Supply, Indian Territory, roads from. Compiled by Lieut. E. 
H. Ruffuer, Corps of Engineers, in 1872. 

Fort Yuma, Cal., to Texas. New route for cattle droves and trains. Capt. L. C. 
Overman, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 

•Georgia, Northwestern, with portions of Tennessee and Alabama. Compiled in the 
Engineer Bureau, War Department, in 1863. 

■Green County, Virginia, by Jed Hotchkiss, 1866. 

Indian Territory, with part of Kansas. Compiled in the Engineer Bureau, AVar De- 
partment, in 1866. 

Indian Territory, with i^arts of neighboring States and Territories. Compiled by 
Lieut. H. Jackson, Seventh Cavalry, U. S. A., in 1869. 

Indian Territory, compiled under the direction of Lieut. E. H. Ruffner, Corps of Engi- 
neers, U. S. A., in 1875. 

Kansas, Texas, and the Indian Territory, with parts of the Territories of Colorado 
and New Mexico. Compiled in the Engineer Bureau, War Department, 1867. 
Corrected to 1874. 

Montana Territory. Compiled under the direction of Capts. D. P. Heap and William 
Ludlow, Corps of Engineers, 1872 and 1875. 

Madison County, Virginia, by Jed Hotchkiss, in 1866. 

Military Departments of the Cumberland, the South, and the Gulf Com^iiled in the 
Engineer Bureau, War Department, in 1863. 

Military Department of the South, part of. Compiled in the Engineer Bureau, War 
Department, in 1865. 

Military Department and Territory of Utah. Compiled m the Bureau of Topograph- 
ical Engineers of the War Department in 1860. 

Military Departments of Virginia, Washington, Middle, and the Susquehanna, por- 
tions of Prepared in the Engineer Bureau, War Department, in 1863. 

New Mexico. Sheet 4 of the Department of the Missouri. Compiled by Lieut. E. H. 
Ruffner, Corps of Engineers, in 1873. 

New Mexico. Compiled by Lieut. C. C. Morrison, Sixth Cavalry, U. S. A., in 1875. 

Nebraska. Sheet No. 2 of the Military Department of Platte. Compiled by Capt. 
W. A. Jones, Cor]3S of Engineers, U. S. A., in 1872. 

Nebraska and Wyoming, in 4 sheets, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, of the Department of the 
Platte, by Capt. W. A. Jones, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., in 1874. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



355 



Nebraska and Dakota, and portions of the States and Territories bordering thereon. 
Compiled bj^ Bvt. Maj. Gen. G. K. Warren, major Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., in 
Marcb, 1>J67. 

Nevada, Sonthern and Southeastern. Reconnaissance expedition in charge of Lieut. 
George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., 1869. 

Patuxent and Saint Mary's Rivers, Maryland. Compiled in the Bureau of Topograph- 
ical Engineers, War Department, 1857, from surveys made by Maj. J. J. Abert, To- 
pographical Engineers, and Maj. J. Kearney, Topographical Engineers, in 1824. 

Rockingham County, Virginia, by Jed Hotchkiss, iu 1866. 

Rappahannock County, Virginia, by Jed Hotchkiss, in 1866. 

Shenandoah, Page, and Warren Counties, Virginia, by Jed Hotchkiss, 1866. 

Shenandoah and Upper Potomac, including portions of Virginia and Maryland, com- 
piled by Lieut. John R. Meigs, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., in 1864. 

Tennessee, Middle, and parts of East Tennessee and the adjoining States, compiled 
under the direction of ^Col. William E. Merrill, 1st U. S. V. V. Engineers^ and cap- 
tain Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., in 1865, and iiublished in 1874. 

Territory of the United States, from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, orig- 
iuallj^ prepared to accompany the reports of the explorations for a Pacific rail- 
road, by Lieut. G. K. Warren, Topographical Engineers, recompiled and redrawn 
under the direction of the Chief of the Corps of Engineers, 1865-'66-'67-'68. 

Topographical atlas projected to illustrate geographical explorations and surveys 
west of the one hundredth meridian of longitude, under the command of First 
Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, 

Ute country, Colorado, reconnaissance in the, under the direction of Lieut. E. H. 
Ruftner, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., in 1873. 

United States, showing the limits of the military departments and the positions of 
the military posts of the United States. Prepared under the direction of the 
Chief of the Corps of Eugineers, U. S. A., in 1874. (Third edition.) 

Virginia, Central, compiled in the Bureau of Topographical Engineers, War Depart- 
ment, in 1862. 

Virginia and North Carolina, portions of, embracing Richmond and Lynchburg, Va., 
and Goldsborough and Salisbury, N. C. Compiled in the Engineer Bureau, War 
Department, in 1864. 

Virginia, West, by Lieut. John R. Meigs, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 

Virginia, Southeastern, and Fort Monroe. Compiled in the Bureau of Topographical 
Engineers, AVar Department, in 1861. 

Western Territories, sheet No. 3. Compiled under the direction of Maj. G. L. Gil- 
lespie, Corps of Engineers, 1876. 

Wyoming, Military Department of the Platte, sheet 3. Compiled by Capt. W. A. 
Jones, Corps of Eugineers, U. S. A., in 1874. 

Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers and their tributaries, exx^lored by Capt. W. F. Ray- 
nolds, Topographical Engineers, and Lieut. H. E. Maynadier, Tenth Infantry, U. 
S. A., in 1859 and 1860. 

Yellowstone Lake and the Valley of the Upper Yellowstone River. Route of Capts. 
J. W. Barlow and D. P. Heap, Corps of Engineers, in their reconnaissance of the 
region, during the summer of 1871. 

Yukon River, Alaska, from Fort Yukon to the sea. Reconnaissance by Cax)t. Charles 
W. Raymond, Cori)s of Engineers, in July and September, 1869. 

LAKE SURVEY CHARTS. 

1. Agate Harbor, Lake Superior. 

2. Buffalo Harbor, Lake Erie. 

3. Copper Harbor, Lake Superior. 

4. Chicago, City of, Hlinois. 

5. Detroit River, Michigan, mouth of. 



356 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

6. East Neebisli Eapids, River Saint Mary. 

7. Eagle Harbor, Lake Superior. 

8. Eagle River, Lake Superior. 

9. Erie, Lake. 

10. Erie, Lake, west end of. 

11. Fond du Lac, west end of. Lake Superior. 

12. Grand Island and approaches, Lake Superior. 

13. Green Bay, head of, Lake Michigan. 

14. Green Bay, north end of. Lake Michigan. 

15. Green Bay, south end of, Lake Michigan. 

16. Huron, Lake. 

17. Hnrou, Lake, sonth end of. 

18. Harbors of refuge, Lake Huron. 

18. Huron Baj^ and Islands, Lake Superior. 

20. Isle Royale, Lake Superior. 

21. Kelley's and Bass Islands, Lake Erie. 

22. L'Anse, including Portage Entry, &c., Lake Superior. 

23. Marquette Harbor, Lake Superior. 

24. Michigan, Lake, north end of. 

25. Michigan, Lake, northeast end of. 

26. Michigan, Lake, north end of, including Beaver Island group. 

27. Maumee Bay, Lake Erie. 

28. Niagara Falls. 

29. Ontonagon Harbor, Lake Superior. 

30. Portage Lake and River, Lake Superior. 

31. Saint Marie River, No. 1. 

32. Saint Marie River, No. 2. 

33. Saint Lawrence River, No. 1. 

34. Saint Lawrence River, No. 2. 

35. Saint Lawrence River, No. 3. 

36. Saint Lawrence River, No. 4. 

37. Saint Clair Flats, Lake Saint Clair. 

38. Saint Clair River. 

39. Saint Clair Lake. 

40. Straits of Mackinac. 

41. Sandusky Bay, Lake Erie. 

42. Sanginaw Bay, Lake Huron. 

43. Sanginaw River, Lake Huron. 

44. Superior, Lake, No. 1. 

45. Superior, Lake, No. 2. 

46. Superior, Lake, No. 3. 

47. Tawas Harbor, Lake Huron. 

48. Thunder Bay, Lake Huron. 

DIAGRAMS RELATING TO FORTIFICATIONS. 

Plans, sections, and elevations of a barbette battery, as proposed by the Board of Engi- 
neers for Fortifications. 

Plan showing arrangement of breast-height wall and traverse proposed by the Board 
of Engineers for Fortifications, for securing better cover for gunners and guns. 

Front pintle platforms for 15-inch and 13-inch guns, as modified August, 1870. 

Center pintle platforms for 15-inch and 13-inch guns as modified August, 1870. 

Wooden front pintle platform for 15-inch guns designed by General Q. A. Gillmore, 
with modifications based on experiments. 

"Wooden center ijintle platform for 15-iuch guns, as designed by Bvt. Maj. Gen. John 
Newton, Corps of Engineers. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 357 

Front pintle platforms for 15-incli gans, adapted to new ordnance carriage of 15 inches 
increased height. 

"Wooden front pintle platforms, with lovr traverse rail, adapted to new ordnance car- 
riage of 15 inches increased height. 

King's counterpoise gun carriage for 15-iuch guns, erected at Fort Foote, Md., June, 
1870. 

Plan and sections of j^arapet and platform, with low traverse stones, for 10-inch and 
8-inch smooth hore, and 100, 200, 300 pounder rifles. 

Plan and sections of platforms designed for l3-iuch and 10-iuch mortars. 

Concretemixer employed at Fort Scammel, Me., by Lieut. Col. J. C. Daaue, Corps 
of Engineers, with description. 

Barbette traverse magazine, with bomb-proof shelter, by Board of Engineers for For- 
tifications. 

Calculated trajectories of the 12-inch rifled gnu, by Board of Engineers for Fortifica- 
tions. 

Elevations and details of a crane at Fort Preble, Me. Drawn under the direction of 
Capt. Thomas Lincoln Casey, Corps of Engineers. 3 sheets. 

Fort Tompkins. Details of cranes. Drawn under direction of Maj. J. G. Baruard, 
Corps of Engineers. 

Details of stone carriage and stone cutting shed, constructed under the direction of 
Maj. Thomas Lincoln Casey, Cordis of Engineers, and used at Forts Scaramel, 
Preble, and Popham. 

Details of steam derrick constructed under the direction of Maj. Thomas Lincoln 
Casey, Corps of Engineers, and used at Forts Knox, Popham, aud Gorges, Me. 

No. 2. Eecord books of the geographical survey west of the one-hun- 
dredth meridian, being blank forms for recording all the work re- 
quired of a i^arty in the field. Contributor, Lieutenant Wheeler. 

These forms give a clearness aud uniformity to the field-notes, which is estimated 
to save more than one-half of the work of reduction. 

They are astronomical (15), geodetic (2), topographical (6), meteorological (7), zool- 
ogical (l)j botanical (1), and mining questions (1). 

1^0. 3. Specimens of petrified wood from Yellowstone National Park. 
Contributed by Capt. William A. Jones, Corps of Engineers. 

The following memoir by Captain Jones fully describes the specimens : 

''These specimens of petrified wood are exhibited as a remarkable occurrence in 
the field of mineralogy. 

"To the best of my knowledge, they are the first of their kind that have been dis- 
covered. I found then in August, 1873, a few miles up the East Fork of Yellowstone 
River, in the mountains on the south side. 

" These mountains are composed largely of volcanic conglomerate — a concrete of 
rounded bowlders large and small, cemented with lava. Many stumps of a fossil forest 
still project above the surface in this locality. Others are weathered even with the 
surface and the debris is scattered abont in the vicinit3^ I suggest as a possible ex- 
planation of the phenomena that. the ridge of mouutains in which they occur was 
capped or largely formed by successive overflow of lava from craters or immense 
fissures in the mountain mass lying just to the eastward ; that prior to the last over- 
flow a forest had grown over the surface of the ridge, which was afterwards engulfed 
in the fluid mass of molten material ; that a few of tjie trunks of the trees escaped be- 
ing consumed by the heat, and had their woody fiber replaced by silica — which is pres- 
ent in large quantities in the lava — or perhaps the plastic lava left in some cases a 
mold more or less perfect of the slowly consumed trunk, which the silica afterwards 
filled in by infiltration. (See large map and trail map Xo. 32 of ray report upon 
Northwestern Wyoming and Yellowstone NatioualPark (Eugineer publication), ibid. 
pp. 33, 37, 51, 184-'9). 



358 IXTERXATIOXAL EXHIBIT! OX, 1876. 

" Specimens 1, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, and 11 show thatthe woody fiber has been replaced ; and 
especial attention is called to No. 4, which shows the fibrous structure of wood very 
distinctly, the fiber being replaced by a silky fibrous mineralresembling asbestos. Nos. 
3, 4, 5, 6, and 9 indicate that the woody fiber was sometimes converted into charcoal by 
the heat before being replaced by the silica. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 18 were taken, in my 
presence, from a stump standing in the volcanic conglomerate. Particular attention 
is called to No. 1, which distinctly shows the bark of a tree (apparently coniferous) 
on the outside, and on the inside, which was hollow, a mass of amethyst crystals. 
No. 7 was taken at the foot of a cliff, and had evidently weathered out near the top 
and rolled to the foot, thus defacing its very handsome mass of crystals. Nos. 9 and 
10 show the interior structure of No. 8, and formed part of the same section of a tree. 
Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9 are offered as proof that the series is silicified wood, and not 
from ge. des. Nos. 15, 22, and 24 were taken from what appeared to be the dehris 01 a 
trunk that had weathered down to the surface. No. 19 is evidently a knot. Nos. 
12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, and 31 were obtained in the same locality asthe 
others and are presumably either of the same origin or else may have been formed by 
the infiltration of silica into accidental cavities in the lava." 

IS'o. 4. Samples of buildiag-stoues of the United States. Contributor, 
Lieut. Ool. Q. A. Gillmore, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general, 
U. S. A. 

There are forty-eight specimens of granite, twenty-eight of marble, sixteen of sand- 
stone, twelve of limestone, four of trap, two of bluestone, and one of magnesian stone. 
General Gillmore has, in addition to his other duties, been engaged for several j^ears 
in a series of experiments upon the compressive strength and ratio of absorption of ' 
the building-stones of the United States. 

His last report, containing a detailed description of the method of conducting the 
experiments, together with a large number of tabulated results, including the speci- 
mens here presented, may be found in the Report of Chief of Endiueers for 1875, Part 
II. 

i^o. 5. Field photographic outfit. Contributor, General Abbot. 

It consists of two boxes closely packed and containing all the articles needful for 
map printing in the field. 

No. 6. Publications relating to the geographical survey west of the 
one hundredth meridian. Contributed by Lieutenant Wheeler. 

Ten volumes, as follows: 

Preliminary report, 1869-71. 

Catalogue of plants, 1871-73 ; and 

Vertebrata of the Ecoene of New Mexico, 1874. 

Progress report, 1872. 

Tables of camps and distances, 1872. 

Annual rexiort, 1873-74. 

Astronomical report, 1874. 

Annual report, 1875. 

Report of 1875, part I, vol. IV, Paleontology. 

Report of 1875, vol. Ill, Geology. 

Report of 1875, chap. Ill, vol. V, Zoology. 

^o. 7. Cypress stump, weighing about 3 tons, taken from the channel 
of Cape Fear Eiver, North Carolina, during the spring of 1875. Con- 
tributed by Colonel Craighill. 

The following history and description of the removal of these stumps, consisting 
mainly of extracts fromau "Historical sketch of the improvements of the Cape Fear 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



359 



River, North Carolina," are kindly furnished by Captain Phillips, Corps of Engi- 
neers : 

" In the spring of 1874 il^was determined to make an attempt to remove the so-called 
' Logs ' or obstructions above Campbell's or ' Big ' Island, about 11 miles above the New 
Inlet and 8 miles below the city of Wilmington. 

" The main channel of the river formerly passed to the west of Campbell's Island. 
Between the years 1823 and 1829 a considerable amount of work was done at this part 
by the State government of North Carolina. One of the steps taken by the State was 
to shut off the channel to the west of the island, and cause all the water to pass to the 
east. 

'' This was done by means of a dike from the island to the western shore of the river, 
assisted by a jettee or deflector located a short distance above. 

'■'■ The result of this movement was to cause the river to seek a new channel directly 
across the ' Logs.' It never sue ceeded in finding or making over 9 feet of water at 
low tide. 

" Capt. Hartman Bache, Topographical Engineers, in a report dated November, 1827, 
disapproves of the plan of shutting off the channel to the westward of Campbell's 
Island, but states that as the dike constructed has already caused the formation of 
shoals above and below it, he deems it inexpedient to reopen the channel. 

" If in 1827 the channel to the west of the island had so shoaled as to make it inex- 
pedient to reopen it, it is easy to imagine its condition in 1874, or forty-seven years 
later. For a distance of about 3 miles the site of the old channel was occupied by an 
immense flat, with here and there a small pocket to indicate its old locality. 

"There seemed, then, to be but one practicable way of improving this portion of 
the river, and that by simply cutting a channel-way through these obstructions. 

" Deep water (from 15 to 18 feet) was to be found for miles both above and below 
the shoal, and there was every indication that by removing the obstructions not only 
would the channel maintain itself, but deepen under the action of the river currents. 
"A large dredge-boat was accordingly chartered, fitted out with grappling appa- 
ratus, and, proceeding to the Cape Fear, was engaged at the ' Logs ' from the 2d of 
March to the 11th of April, 1874, and again from the 17th of December, 1874, till the 
latter part of the following June. 

" The result of this work was the completion of six cuts, aggregating 245 feet in 
width, across the upper portion of the shoal or the ' Logs ' proper ; and three cuts 
across the lower portion of the shoal, aggregating 125 feet in width. Twelve feet of 
water at ordinary low tide was thus secured across the shoal, which was an increase 
of 3 feet over the original depth. 

" The locality it seems beyond doubt must have been at some time the site of a 
cypress swamp. Many cypress stumps were removed, ranging in diameter from 4 to 7 
feet, together with thousands of smaller stumps, cypress knees and roots. But few 
logs were found, and those evidently had floated there from some other locality. 

" The stumps were found projecting above the bed of the river, were perfectly sound, 
and were battered by the keels of vessels which had been passing over them for the 
last fifty years. 

"Perhaps the most singular feature about these stumps was the evidence that they 
had been eaten off by the teredo, which, as is well known, works only in salt -water. 
This, in connection with the fact that the water above Campbell's Island has been 
IDerfectly fresh since the early settlement of America, goes to show the great age of 
these stumps. 

" To go back one stexD farther, and remark that the cypress can grow only in or in 
the vicinity of fresh water, and we only add one more x>eriod of unknown duration 
to the age of these remarkable stumps." 



360 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

A.I»I»ElSriDIX TO cj^t^lo&tje. 

I. — Special Description of Articles Exhibited 

By Lieut. George M, Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, in charge of United States Geo- 
graphical Surveys ivest of the One hundredth Mei-idian. 

1. Progress map, 16 by 22 feet : 

This map is designed to show the progress made, the areas occupied, astronomical 
stations determined, &c. It also shows the scheme of survey and mapping by rect- 
angles, instead of political or other divisions. Each rectangle includes from 17,000 to 
18,000 square miles. Each in turn can be subdivided into smaller ones of a propor- 
tionate part, as has already been done, to allow an increase of scale, and still preserve 
the general plan and size of the maps. 

2. Triangulation map : 

Showing the initial astronomical stations, measured bases, and main triangulation 
stations in the Colorado section of United States geographical surveys west of the 
one hundredth meridian. 

3. WaUmap: 

Showing a number of the maps printed by photolithographic process, and joined 
together so as to represent any portion of the region surveyed that may be desired 
greater than that embraced in any one rectangle. 

4. Wall map : 

Same as above, excepting that the sheets have been produced by crayon instead of 
photolithographic process. 

5. Wall map : 

Showing graphically the geological formation of parts of the areas entered and ex- 
amined by the geologists attached to the several expeditious. 

6. Original atlas sheets (Nos. 50, 59, 66, 67, 75, 83, 61 (B), 69 (D), in frames. 
(Hand drawings.) 

7. Progress map : 
In frame. 

8. Atlas sheet 61 B : 

Colored to show natural resources. ' 

9. Atlas: 

Photolithographic sheets as published for distribution. In addition to the topo- 
graphical certain other and preliminary sheets form part of the atlas, viz : 

Legend sheet. — Showing names of officers and assistants engaged upon the work, 
projections, connections, &c. 

Basin map. — Showing, by colors, the distribution of the main drainage areas west 
of the Mississippi Eiver. 

Progress map. — Showing, by red lines, the direction and number of the various ex- 
peditions under War Departnaent auspices for explorations west of the Mississi^Dpi 
River ; also showing the rectangle scheme, and, by colors, the areas surveyed during 
the several field seasons of the survey. 

Sheet of conventional signs. — The one now in use. 

Atlas (rectangle) sheets.— Nos. 49, 50, 57, 59, 61 (C), 61 B, 65, 66, 67, 69 D, 75, 76, 83 ; 
also several sheets produced by crayon process, 

10. Atlas: 

Geological sheets 50, one-half of (58 + 66) 59, and 67, based on the topographical 
maps, and showing the geological formation of a portion of the regions surveyed; also 
general topographical map of the region west of the Mississippi River, and map show- 



THE EXGIXEER SECTIOX. 361 

ing restored outline of an ancuent fresTi-water lake. (For description see vol. Ill (Geo- 
logy), chap. Ill, Reports upon Geographical surveys -vvcst of the one hundredth me- 
ridian. 

11. Photographic copies of atlas maps on reduced scale. 

12. Publications: 

Preliminary report upon a reconnaissance through Southern and Southwestern Ne- 
vada, made in 1869, by First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., 
assisted by First Lieut. D. W. Lockwood, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., under the 
orders of Brig. Gen. E. O. C. Ord, brevet major-general, U. S. A., commanding Depart- 
ment of California ; and 

Preliminary report concerning explorations and surveys, principally in Nevada and 
Arizona, prosecuted in accordance with paragraph 2, Special Orders No. 109, War De- 
partment, March 18, 1871, and letter of instructions of March 23, 1871, from Brig. Gen. 
A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers conducted under the immediate direction of 
First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Cori)s of Engineers. 1871. 1 vol. 4°. 

Tables containing camps, distances, lines of march, latitudes, longitudes, altitudes, 
&c. Exploratious and surveys west of the one hundredth meridian, in Utah, Nevada, 
and Arizona, Field season of 1872. 1vol. 4^. 

Progress report upon geographical and geological explorations and surveys west of 
the one hundredth meridian in 1872 under the direction of Brig. Gen. A. A. Humphreys, 
Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., by First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, 
in charge. 1 vol. 4^. 

Eeport upon the determinations of the astronomical co-ordinates of the i^rimary sta- 
fitatious at Cheyenne, Wyo., and Colorado Spriugs, Colo., made during the years 1872 
and 1873. Geographical and geological explorations and surveys "west of the one hun- 
•dredth meridian. First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, in charge ; 
Dr. F. KamiDf and J. H. Clark, ci\*ilian astronomical assistants. 1 vol. 4°. 

Annual report upon the geographical and geological surveys and explorations 
west of the one hundredth meridian, in Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and 
Arizona, by George M. Wheeler, first lieutenant of Engineers, U. S. A., being Appen- 
dix EE of the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1873 ; and annual report 
upon the geographical explorations and surveys west of the one hundredth meri- 
diau, in California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, and 
Montana, by George M. Wheeler, first lieutenant of Engineers, U. S. A., being Ap- 
pendix FF of the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1874, 1 vol. 8^. 

Annual report upon the geographical exploration and surveys west of the one 
hundredth meridian, in California, Nevada, Nebraska, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, New 
Mexico, Wyoming, and Montana, by Gsorge M. Wheeler, first lieutenant of Engineers, 
U. S. A., being Appendix LL of the Annual Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1875. 
1 vol. 8^. 

Systematic catalogue of vertebrata of the Eoceneof New Mexico collected in 1874 ; 
and catalogue of plants collected in the years 1871, 1872, and 1873, with descriptions 
of new species. 1 vol. 8^. 

Report upon geographical and geological exploratious and surveys west of the one 
hundredth meridian, in charge of First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, 
U.S.A., under the direction of Brig. Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U. 
S. A., published by authority of Hon. William W.Belknap, Secretary of War, in accord- 
ance with acts of Congress of June 23, 1874, and February 15, 1875, in six volumes, 
accompanied by one topographical and one geological atlas. Vol. Ill, Geology. 4° 

Report upon geographical and geological explorations and surveys west of the one 
hundredth meridian, in charge of First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers 
U. S. A., under the direction of Brig. Gan. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U. 
S. A., published by authority of Hon. William W. Belknap, Secretary of War, in ac- 
cordance with actsof Congress of June 23, 1874, and February 15, 1875, in six volumes, 
accompanied by one topographical and one geological atlas. Part I, vol. lY, Pale- 
ontolosv. 4^. 



362 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

Report upon geograpbical and geological explorations aud surveys wesb of the one 
hundred til meridian, in charge of First Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, 
U. S. A., under the direction of Brig. Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U. S. 
A., published by authority of Hon. William W. Belknap, Secretary of War, in ac- 
cordance with acts of Congress of June 23, 1874, and February 1.5, 1875, in six volumes, 
accompanied by one topographical and one geological atlas. Chapter III, vol. V, 
Zoology. ^. 

PHOTOGRAPHS. 

13. Apache scouts in the White Mountains, Arizona. 

The Sierra Blauca Mountains are the favorite hunting grounds of the x^pache Indi- 
ans, for the abundance of forest, grass, and water in this region gives shelter and sub- 
sistence to deer, elk, and smaller game in great numbers. In this second view of 
Apache Lake are seen two scouts of the Coyotero branch of this tribe. These speci- 
mens are of the best type of the race. They are true savages in all conditions of habit 
and accouterment, except in their weapons, which are modern breech-loading rifles, for 
which they have abandoned the primitive bow and arrow. As guides and trailmen 
these Indians are frequently used by marching troops and scouting parties, although 
in that acuteness of sense which distinguishes the pathfinder they are not superior 
to white mountaineers of equal experience. They are treacherous also, being faithful 
only out of necessity, and when their actions are subject to a constant scrutiny. 
Physically they are tough, hardy, aud well built, but are too sinewy and spare to be 
very handsome. In their movements they are stealthy, quick, and graceful. They 
are capable of great endurance, and, traveling constantly on foot^, they will excel a 
body of horse in traversing a mountainous country. In this picture they are seen 
in their native dress, which consists of a buckskin jacket, a cloth around the loins, 
and around the forehead a handkerchief, which acts as a fillet to prevent the hair 
from covering the eyes. 

14. Apache Lake in the White Mountains, Arizona. 

About 35 miles eastof Camp Apache, Arizona, in the Sierra Blauca or White Mount- 
ains, at an altitude of 10,500 feet above the sea, lies Apache Lake, the subject of the 
accompanying picture. This mountain pool is of no important size, being only a 
pistol-shot across, but is reniarkable for the beauty of itself and its surroundings. It 
is shaded by trees of the white or Arizona oak. On its surface, in the left of the pict- 
ure, a tangled web of the water-lily is floating. Ljdng in a valley which is a perfect 
basin it can have no surface outlet, but its clear and cold waters sink by some under- 
ground channel and emerge a mile or so away, feeding the north fork of the White 
Mountain Creek. Around the lake are masses of limestone rock, while overhead the 
basaltic bluffs tower to a height of 2,000 feet. In the adjacent country are groves of 
fine oak timber, pine forests many miles in extent, and well-watered glades covered 
with a luxurious growth of herbage and flowers. The lower spurs of these mountains 
are covered with bunch and grama grasses, and decked with blossoms of golden-rod 
and aster, emblematic of a mild temperature which, is most favorable for the farmer, 
while on the heights are broad fields of timber sheltering great pastures which still 
subsist thousands of cattle through the summer. These conditions of beauty aud fer- 
tility effectually prove that Arizona, in its entirety, is not the worthless desert that 
by many it has been supposed to be. 
15 and 16. Black Canon, Colorado River (2 views). 

A view of Black Canon at about its middle point, being Camp No. 8 of the Colorado 
River portion of the expedition of 1871. The vessel in the foreground is one of a 
little fleet of four boats in which the party left Camp Mohave, Arizona, on September 
15 of that year. In 31 days they traveled 260 miles, passing through Painted Canon, 
Black Canon, Bowlder Canon, Virgin Canon, and mouth of Diamond Creek. The 
bed of the Colorado River is accessible by a trail from the south, and their purpose 
being accomplished, and with provisions exhausted, this party abandoned their boats 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. -^6^) 

here, and were met by a supply train which had been ordered to this rendezvons by an 
overhmd route. This is the farthest point to which the Grand Caiion has ever been 
penetrated from below, the only other recorded ascent being that of a company of 
white men from Las Vegas Springs, Nev., whose names are inscribed on the walls of 
the stream about 10 miles above its mouth. The impossibility of easy navigation on 
this river was fully demonstrated by the i^erils and fixtignes encountered on this jour- 
ney and by the necessity of frequent portages of a most difficult character, which in 
this ascent were numerous and laborious, rendering the trip especially arduous and 
hazardous. 

17. Alpine Lake in the Sierras, California. 

To the westward from Camp Independence, California, the Sierra Nevada peaks 
stand out in bold and ragged outline, showing in the late summer, even, the spots of 
snow nestling in the northern and northeastern ravines leading out from th« main 
summits. The view shows a lake, Alpine in its character, being one of the lowest of 
the terrace, and located, approximately, at 9,000 feet above sea-level. In the back- 
ground is seen banks of snow, the extent of which is mostly veiled, and at the foot of 
each in turn one of these crystal reservoirs may be found. The grandeur of the rugged 
and exposed rock formation relieved by the frequent groves of tall pines, with lakelets 
often in their midst, add to a scene of natural beauty and solitude well worthy an 
artist's study or the traveler's admiration. 

18. Canon de Chelle, New Mexico. 

Camp Beauty, Canon de Chelle, New Mexico. Leaving Old Fort Defiance, the train 
for 35 miles traverses a dry and desert plateau, and then abruptly descends into this 
canon, which, from the grandeur of its walls, and the green growth of vegetation on 
its fertile bottom, is of unrivaled beauty. This narrow gorge about one-fourth of a 
mile in width, is the principal home of the Navajo Indians, whose squaws cultivate 
the alluvial soil, raising corn, melons, peaches, and vegetables. From this secure 
fold their numerous flocks of sheep are driven out upon the neighboring plains to 
graze, returning at times for water and shelter. The walls are of sandstone, almost 
or quite vertical, 12,000 feet in height, of a vermilion color, blending into a dark 
brown, whose effect is very beautiful in the sunshine. The three shafts of rock upon 
the right are 1,000 feet high, standing in an isolated group in the center of the canon* 
The columnar formation is also represented in the valley by the "Explorer's Column," 
a pillar, of' equal altitude with those, which is remarkable for its regular formation 
and narrow base. At Camp Beauty, where tents are seen in the foreground on the 
left, five lateral canons branch in all directions from the main gorge, making this 
the center of a star of six rays. 

The word clielle is pronounced as if spelled cJuuj-e. 

19. Section of Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico. 

A view of the ancient pueblo (or town) of Zuni, N. Mex. There are about twenty 
tribes of these town-builders scattered throughout the Territory, clustered in towns J 
hence their general name, Pueblo Indians. They are peaceful and hospitable, sup" 
porting themselves by cultivation of the soil and raising stock. They love to dwell 
upon the past glories of their race, and are bitter upon the people that reduced them. 
The pueblo of Zuni is of great interest; the town incloses a quadrangular area, in which 
stands the ruins of a church built under direction of the Jesuit missionaries. All the 
buildings are of "adobe," and the whole town covers not much, if any, more space 
than the Patent Office building at Washington. Their houses are of irregular shape, 
piled up together, and from one to six stories in height. The "front door" is usually 
on top of the house, and reached by ladders, which, when drawn up, left the people a 
fortification against their predatory neighbors in olden days of tribal warfare. Here 
live about 1,600 people (including 14 Albinos), submitting without reserve to the 
unwritten laws of their race as interpreted by their chosen officials. Indeed, their 
form of government and obedience to authority would not compare unfavorably with 



364 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

some modern centers of civilization. When their city was first discovered, three liun- 
dred jears ago, they were a rich, prosperous, proud, and largely civilized people. They 
worship the sun, and believe in the second coming of the prophet Montezuma upon 
the back of au eagle. Hence, this bird is held sacred, and numbers are seen about the 
town, tamed and carefully provided for. 

20. Shoshone Falls, Snake River, Idaho. 

This j)icture affords a good view of the numerous bowlder islands which are scat- 
tered in the river above Shoshone Falls. They are twenty or thirty in number, and are 
separated by as many rapids and cascades, the most important of which are Lace Falls. 
These diminutive isles are clothed with moss and cedar trees, whose deep green is in 
vivid and pleasing contrast with the white foam of the fretting and dashing water. 
Apparently these are the remains of a wall of rock which once dammed the river 
here find restrained it a moment before its final leap. Near the center of the stream 
is Cave Island, a large rock, which is penetrated by an archway of entrance 25 feet 
high, forming a Titanic grotto whose mysteries have never yet been explored. The 
Shoshone Falls are but one of three cascades which occur in immediate successiim in 
the descent of Snake River. Three miles above are the Little Falls, 110 feet high, and 
a short distance below are the Salmon Falls, 30 feet high. The latter mark the upper 
limit of possible navigation on the Snake River. 

21. View in Conejos Valley, Colorado. 

Looking up Conejos River from a point 4 miles above Beaver Lake. Here, also, the 
valley is populous with beavers, and, as far as the eye earn reach, there are evidences 
of their work, which has been progressing for ages. In former times this river was 
a narrow, compact stream, following a direct channel, but, being dammed at various 
points, the drift-wood Avas retained, the sediment was deposited, and all of the float 
of the freshet was collected, forming a succession of marshy terraces of new earth along 
the course of the current. Through these the river now runs sluggishly, diverging 
into many small channels and bayous, and embracing many islands of swamp. In this 
alluvial earth are the tunnels and huts of the beavers, which have undermined the 
surface until it is too weak to sustain the weight of men who attempt to ride over it, 
and hence the transit of one of these beaver lands is accompanied with great labor 
and difficulty. 

22. ''Lost" Lakes, divide of Rio Grande and San Juan Rivers. 

The Lost Lakes lie in a secluded spot at the bead of the Conejos Canon at an ap- 
proximate height of 10,000 feet above the sea. Crossing the summit between the 
Conejos and Alamosa Rivers is a trail which passes very near this lacustrine group, 
but on account of their hidden position affords but a very short glimpse of them. 
Hence their name- "Lost" Lakes. They are feeders of the Conejos River, which 
flows into the Rio Grande. They are of considerable size, the one in the foreground 
being three-fourths of a mile in length. Around them, and upon the neighboring 
hills, are dense forests of the Douglas pine or spruce and thickets of aspen. These 
woods are inliabited by bears, deer, mountain sheep, turkeys, ducks, and other game 
in great numbers, while farther down the stream an abundance of trout is found. 
The view before us is characteristic of the beauty of the mountain scenery of Colo- 
rado. It represents a portion of the San Juan Range, which is here the divide be- 
tween the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the backbone of the continent. On the 
distant peaks there are patches of snow yet remaining ; these may be considered peren- 
nial, as the photograph was taken in the last days of summer. 
^3. Beaver Lake, Conejos Canon, Colorado. 

Beaver Lake, the subject of this picture, is an instance of the remarkable ingenuity 
displayed by the beaver in the x^reparation of its home. This artificial pond occupies 
a cove-like valley, which is bounded on one side, as is seen in the photograph, by a 
low i)romontory of earth, on the farther side of which the stream comes down, and 
hurries past the mouth of this nook in a series of rapids. At this point the beavers 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 365 

selected a site for their dam, and, building it, they drove the backwater into this 
basin, and thus was formed a sheltered and untroubled pool for their acjuatic (»ijera- 
tions and abode. Beaver Lake is nearly a half mile in width. The waters which 
feed it come directly from the high mountains, and are marvelously clear, as, for illus- 
tration, notice the reflection of the distant x^iiie tree from its surface. The lake lies 
at an altitude of 9,000 feet above the sea, at a distance of '20 miles from the month of 
the Conejos Canon, one of the most beautiful and inviting valleys to be found in tbe 
mountains of Colorado. For other views of this canon see the following three photo- 
graphs in succession. 
24. Grand Canon of the Colorado River. 

The Kanab Canon, after running due south for nearly a hundred miles, joins the 
Colorado at about the middle point of the Grand Canon proper. Standing at the 
mouth of the Kanab and looking eastward up the Colorado, the canon is seen in all, 
the majesty of its grandest type. Above the river-bed the boundary walls rise a mile 
or more in height, sometimes abrupt an overhanging, again receding in benches of 
terraces, which are gigantic stairs climbing to the surrounding plateaus. Successive 
sheets of marble, granite, slate, limestone, and sandstone, whose courses, of a thou- 
sand feet in thickness, are distorted by folds and broken by faults, crop out along the 
ledges, and stripe them with all the hues of red, black, brown, and gray. The edge 
of the adjacent mesa or table-land is ragged with the numerous lateral washes or 
gulches, whose channels Aviud through dark recesses which are somber with the shad- 
ows of the impending cornices of stone. At the foot of the walls lie slopes of varie- 
gated and fragmentary rock, which the winter frosts have chipped from the cliifs 
above. • Through this black abyss the river runs like a silver thread, so far in the 
depths that the roaring of its cataracts is lost to the listener who stands above. In 
the early ages of geology, however, this canal was more shallow than now, and the 
river washed these bowlders which are seen in the front of the picture, rounding them 
into their present shape. 
5.. Mountain Park, Conejos Canon, Colorado. 

The valley of the Conejos varies in width from one to three miles. It is almost in- 
accessible except by way of its mouth, being bounded on either side by an escarp- 
ment of precipitous cliifs 2,000 feet above the stream, from whose base the foot hills 
slope with an even and gentle grade. In all of our unoccupied territory there is no 
spot which offers greater advantages to the settler than this. Although it is at too 
great an elevation for the production of ordinary crops, yet as a grazing country it is 
unrivaled, and is capable of giving subsistence to thousands of cattle. It is a broad 
area of pasture, upon which the grass grows deep in the summer, and the snows are 
light in winter. Hitherto, the settler has been deterred from entering this promising 
district by fear of the Ute Indians, from whose power it is now reclaimed, and when 
visited, in 1874, it did not possess any permanent inhabitants, and was used only by 
the Mexicans of the Rio Grande, who w^ ere in the custom of driving their herds thither 
for the summer season. 
26. Headlands of the Colorado River, mouth of Paria Creek, Colorado. 

The lines of cliffs, determined by the occurrence of harder and more massive strata, 
are modified not only by the intersecting faults, w^hich have great local effect upon 
the rate and manner of denudation, but by changes in the constitution of the beds 
which give rise to them. 

At the mouth of Paria Creek the Colorado leaves the sandstones of the trias 
through which it has meandered for many miles in a narrow canon, emerges for a 
short space into full sunlight, while it crosses the marls at the base of that formation, 
and then begins its descent into the carboniferous and underlying rocks, which wall 
it in through Marble and Grand Canons. In these gorges the river has flo flood-plain. 
It is a well recognized fact in the natural history of rivers that their first w^ork of 
erosion, where they have rapid fall, is upon their beds, and that it is only when they 
have so far reduced their grades as to greatly diminish their transporting and cutting 



366 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



power that tliey begin wearing tlieir banks and widening tbeir channels, so as to 
render flood-plains possible. 

27. Album of 50 selected landscape views taken in the years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874. 

28. Albnm of 25 selected landscape views taken in the years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874. 

29. Twenty- live selected landscape views taken in the years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874, 
for display in graphoscope. 

30. One hundred and forty-four (2 sets of 72 each) selected stereoscopic views taken 
in the years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874, in revolving stereoscope. 

One hundred selected stereoscopic views taken in the years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 
1874, in box. 

WATER-COLOR DRAWINGS. 

31. Cooley's Park, near Camp Apache, Arizona. 

It IS only within the last few years that the whites, except in large bodies, have 
been able t^ enter the Sierra Blanca region, on account of the hostile Apaches who 
were at home there. In the early part of the year 1873 they were finally subjugated 
by General Crook, in a continuous war of several years. After their conquest they 
were put under discipline uj)on different reservations, one of which is exhibited in the 
accompanying picture. There, through the agency of General Crook, whose excel- 
lent policy still continues in force, they have been instructed in the various arts of 
peaceful self-support, including the care of cattle and the cultivation of the soil, rais- 
ing crops of corn, beans, potatoes, &c. Up to the present date, however, the fruits 
of their labors have not been sufficient for their sustenance, and they have been de- 
pendent on the Government for supplies of food. The head farmer of the White 
Mountain Eeservation is named Cooley, a white man, whose ranch and park are shown 
in the picture, and who has lived with this tribe for many years. 

32. Cachina, or Rain Dance, Zuni Indians, New Mexico. 

In times of great drought and during festivals the "cacique" orders the celebra- 
tion of the cachina, a sacred dance. The following is a description by an eye-witness : 

"Some twenty-seven persons were engaged in the ceremony. When first seen the 
participants were standing in a line, their faces toward the sun, and were gayly dressed, 
as will be evident from the following description : 

"No. 1 (figures to the left) represents a dancer; costume, light-blue mask with horse, 
hair beard attached; necklace of a skein of black woolen yarn and beads; wreath of 
hemlock as a waistband; short white skirt, with fancy border, held at the waist by a 
green and black sash, to which was attached a bunch of long white strings hanging 
to the ground along the leftside; a land-turtle shell pendant from the left garter 
below the knee, containing pebbles, which served a purpose similar to the castanet 
of the Spanish dancer; hemlock around the ankles, yellow eagle-leathers in the hair, 
and a fox-skin suspended from the waistband completed the make-up. 

"No. 2 (middle figure) represents the captain, or leader. Yellow eagle-plumes in the 
hair, blue tunic, white under-garment, with fancy embroidered side-piece inserted, 
and blue woolen knitted leggings; in one hand a staflt' was carried, the other holding 
an earthen vessel containing flowers. 

"No. 3 (figure to the right) represents a female dancer (character taken by maie) ; 
costume, a serape with black border interwoven with various colors, a blue gown, and 
a w ig made of rdbbit hair. The ornaments were the same as those worn by No. 1. 

"The male dancers stand in a line, the females :lacing them and chanting a low, 
solemn strain, keeping time with the right foot. In the intervals between the songs 
the leader scatters flour to the four winds to appease the anger of the Divine Being 
and induce him to send water from heaven. 

" It may be a fact of importance to the superstitious to know that it did rain that 
evening, and most heavily, the storm lasting several hours." 

33. Navajo Indians at home, near Old Fort Defiance, New Mexico. 

The Navajoes at home, near old Fort Defiance, an abandoned military post, Avhere 
their agency is now situated. They ai'e an intelligent and fierce people by nature, and 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 367 

were a warlike and predatory nation until subdued by the United States troops in 
1859-'60. They are celebrated for their wealth in the varieties of stock, and said to 
possess greater numbers than all of the other wild tribes of New Mexico combined- 
Since their subjugation they have made good progress towards civilization, and are 
now cultivating the soil and raising enough of grain and vegetables to satisfy their 
own needs. In the picture will be seen, as a specimen of their husbandry, ears of corn , 
suspended from the tree upon the right. The framework suspended by raw-hide 
thongs is their native loom, at which the squaw with the necklace of beads is work- 
ing ujjon the unfinished blanket. The Navajo blankets, woven by the women of the 
tribe, are famous the world over for their excellent quality and close texture, which 
makes them impervious to water. One of them, with black and white stripes, may be 
seen upon the person of the " brave " who sits on the right of the grouj). 

34. Cactus Grove (Cereus gigauteus), S. Arizona. 

The drawing represents a number of individuals of the cereus giganteus, or giant cac- 
tus, the largest known variety. Its tall columns often extend to an altitude of 45 to 
60 feet, with few branches, and these somewhat cylindrical, like the parent stalk. 
The trunk at its thick part often attains a diameter of 2 feet, with a dark-green rib, 
covered with clusters of spines. During the infancy of its growth it is usually pro- 
tected by overhanging shrubs, while at stages of maturity it enjoys a prominent place 
in the horizon of the desert valleys usuallj^ of little profile, where it is found in large 
numbers and extending over distances ranging from 5 to 50 miles. It bears an insipid 
and sweet fruit, with a pulp comparable in consistency with the ordinary fresh fig. 
In cases of emergency this fruit has been used as an article of food by travelers, and 
also by small mammals, birds, and Indians. It often proves an important article of 
food because of its saccharine and aqueous qualities. 

35. Stone Arrow-heads (natural size) f^om New Mexico. 

The arrow and spear heads are of the usual style found among the ruins of this re- 
gion, and are the work of a race long extinct. Their manufacture has almost become 
one of the lost arts, and by such Indians as still cling to the primitive bow these 
are sought for and still prized to tip their arrows. 

36. Stone Spear-heads (natural size) from New Mexico. 
Same as above. 

37. Stone Hatchets (natural size) from New Mexico. 

In fashioning the stone into the rude semblance of axes considerable skill is shown 
and the fine polish marks the care taken with these tools. Their use was probably 
very limited, to cutting the softer kinds of woods and working on hides. The speci- 
mens are unusually fine on account of The great beauty of the stones. 

38. Water 011a (one-third size) from Zuui pueblo, New Mexico. 

This is a fine representative of the j^ottery in use among the modern Pueblo Indians. 
It is of the finer grade, the chief use of which is to carry water and as a receptacle 
for the various kinds of foods. Like most of their own manufacture, this specimen is 
profusely ornamented, and the designs well illustrate the degree of skill attained by the 
native artists. • 

39. Record Books. 

(I.) Comparison of chronometers. (2.) Observations for time. (3.) Observations for 
latitudes. (4.) Star catalogue. (5.) Star places. (6.) Instrumental and clock correc- 
tions. (7.) Level errors. (8.) Wire intervals. (9.) Field journal. (10.) Summary of 
latitude and longitude computations. (11.) Time by single altitudes. (12.) Time by 
equal altitudes. (13.) Latitude by polaris. (14.) Latitude by circum-meridian alti- 
tudes. (15.) Computation of distances. (16.) Geodetic co-ordinates. (17.) Tri angula- 
tion observations. (18.) Mountain stations. (19.) Topographical meanders. (20.) 
Topographical note-book. (21.) Topographical note-book. (22.) Observations and 
computations for magnetic dip. (23.) Observations for magnetic declinations. (24.) 



368 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

Observations and computations for horizontal intensity. (25.) Computations of lati- 
tudes and departures. (26.) Triangulation and topographical stations. (27.) Sextant 
astronomical observations. (28.) Logarithm, traverse, and altitude tables. (29.) Me- 
teorological observations. (30.) Aneroid readings. (31.) Aneroid and odometer read- 
ings. (32.) Barometric hypsometry computations. (33.) Aneroid profile computions. 
(34.) Transcript of field meteorological observations. (35.) Meteorological instruc- 
tions. (36.) Botanical note-book. (37.) Natural history collections. (38.) Miuing^ 
questions. 

The principal field record books are those for time and latitude observations, and 
for sextant astronomical observations. Blanks for the noting of chronometers and for 
recording signals are also employed. In geodetic and topographical work, triaugula- 
tion, mountain station, and meander note-books are the most important. 

In the meteorological work, or that part of it bearing upon altitudes from baro- 
metric observations, three books are employed, from which transcripts are taken and 
forwarded to the office for computation, the third one including also observations 
made upon the odometer when that instrument is employed- in making measurements 
of roads, trails, or lines of drainage. The other two books are used for noting obser- 
vations made upon cistern and aneroid barometers, psychrometers, and maximum 
and minimum thermometers. 

Zoological and botanical forms are used for field notations of the name, locality, and 
circumstances surrounding the collection of the various objects. The other blank 
forms are those used in geodetic, topographical, magnetic, and altitude computations- 
in the office, and are those found to be most practical for the speedy reduction of field 
observations. 

INSTRUMENTS. 

40. Astronomical clock. Makers, Howard & Co., Boston. 

Peculiarity of clock in pendulum bobs: (1.) Mercurial pendulum, with cylindrical 
openings to allow free access of air, increasing surface to obtain uniform temperature 
of mercury. (2.) Metallic pendulum, compensated by combination of metals. 

Clock has both make and break circuit attachments, and is used at main astronomi- 
cal receiving stations. 

41. Break circuit sidereal chronometers. Makers, Negus & Bro. 
Used at main astronomical stations. 

42. Large meridian instrument. Maker, Wurdeman, 

This instrument combines advantages of zenith telescope with those of transit in- 
strument. It is used at main astronomical stations for both latitude and longitude 
observations. In connection with it are used the Harkness chronograph, made by 
Clark & Sons, of Cambridge, Mass., or chronograph of some form, and the telegraph 
instruments. Switch board by Tillotson. 

43. Triangulation and azimuth instniment. ^[ade by Buff &. Berger, Boston. 

It has 11 inch focal distance, 1^ inch aperture, telescope with eye pieces of j)Ower 30^ 
and 40 ; 8 inch 10 second horizontal circle, 5 inch 20 second vertical circle, with two 
sets of standards ; one set 3 inches in length, permanently attached to vernier plate for 
use of the instrument as purely triangulation instrument ; the other set to be attached 
to raise the instrument iilto an astronomical transit for azimuth observations. 

44. Topographer's transit. Makers, Young & Sou, Philadelphia. 

This is a very light instrument, with long needle and strong telescope, used on trav- 
erse lines and for three-point locations. It is the one used in meandering of roads 
and streams, and filliug in topography fixed by bearings to triangulation stations 
located by large instrument. 

45. Standard rod. 

Sixty-inch sieel rod, used as standard in measuring base apparatus, furnished by 
the United States Coast Survey. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 369 

46. Personal equation instrument. Made by EclTvarcl Kabler, of Washington, D. C.^ 
after design of Dr. F. Kampf. 

Used at main astronomical stations for determining personal equation of observers. 
Consists of clock-work for passing witb uniform motion a point of light over a dia- 
phragm, time of transit being' noted automatically as well as by observer, personal 
equation thus arrived at arranged to join stars of different rates of apparent motions. 

47. Dip circle. Made by Casella, of London. 

Used at main astronomical stations for determining magnetic declination. 

48. Aneroid barometer. Casella pattern. 

Used on traverse line for running of profiles, checked by comparison with cistern 
barometer every three hours. By a movable scale, scale of feet can be set to cistern 
correction each morning. 

49. Pocket thermometer. Maker, Green, of Xew York. 
Used at all stations where aneroid is read. 

50. Hygrometers. Maker, Green, of New York. 

Used at all stations where cistern barometer is read ; improved form of mounting 
thermometers on wooden base, from specifications by Lieutenant Marshall, Corps of 
Engineers. 

51. Maximum and minimum thermometer. Maker, Green, New York. 
Used at camps and at main astronomical stations. 

52. Implement box. Maker, Green. 

Used for cleaning and filling barometers when necessary in the field. Changes 
from old form, from specifications by Lieutenant Marshall. 

53. Supported tube, cistern barometer. Maker, Green; Lieutenant Marshall pattern. 
Used at all cami:)s, triangulation and topographical stations, permanent divides, 

important river crossings, and astronomical stations. Peculiar in construction, in 
that the lube is supported by gypsum so as to make it more possible to carry it over 
long distances without breaking. 

54. Model of San Juan Mining Region. 

This model shows in relief an area of 11,000 square miles, including a portion of 
the mountainous section of Southwestern Colorado, embracing the regions of the 
headwaters of the Rio Grande, Gunnison, Animas, and Uncompahgre Rivers, the lowest 
altitude being 7,000 feet anrJ the highest 14,419 above sea-level. A portion of the 
divide between the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans crosses the southeast 
one-quarter from northeast to soutTieast. The region has become well known of late 
years because of discoveries of rich mines of gold and silver. The model has been 
constructed from th^ contour map of the San Juan mining region (61 C, sub.), 
numerous sketches and photographs furnished by the office of United States Geo- 
graphical Surveys west of the one hundredth meridian. The heights are given in 
feet above sea-level. The horizontal scale is one inch to one mile, with a vertical 
scale three times enlarged. 

^o««f7flries.— Latitude, 37^.42, 38-.07. Longitude, 107^.15, 107°. 57. 

II.— An Account of the Commencement of the United States 

Lake Survey. 

By Col. J. X. Macomb, Corps of Engineers. 

About the year 1840, Capt. W. G. Williams, of the Corps of Topographical En- 
gineers, U. S. A., then in charge of the work of improving the harbor of Buffalo, and 
of most of the other harbors on our side of Lake Erie, was directed to commence the 
survey of the lakes. 

At that time there was an iuadequate supply of instruments, and boats, and equi- 
24 CEN 



370 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

page in general. It is therefore not surprising that but little progress was made in 
the first few years after the work was authorized by Congress. About the time above 
named I was a first lieutenant of Topographical Engineers and was ordered by Colo- 
nel Abert, the chief of the corps, to make a hydrographic survey of the Detroit River. 
I was assisted in this work by Lieut. W. H. Warner, and we sert in our maps of the 
Detroit in summer of 1842. We were then directed to report to Capt. W. G. Williams 
with the understanding on the part of Col. J. J. Abert, our chief, that we should be 
employed upon a hydrographic survey of the ^' Flats of the Saint Clair." 

Our report on this survey was made through Captain Williams, and upon it was 
based the first improvement of the " Saint Clair Flats," after the lajDse of some twelve 
years. Just fourteen years after making this survey I had the pleasure of revisiting 
the ground and of restoring some of my signal stations of 1842, by the use of which 
a resurvey of the locality was made in much more minute detail than the first. 

In 1845 Lieutenant- Colonel Kearney was placed in charge of the survey, and it was 
as his senior assistant that I organized the work upon the basis which gave the first 
useful results in the sha^^e of charts for the lake navigation. 

I served in the capacity of senior assistant, or executive ofiScer, to Colonel Kearney 
until April, 1851, when I was directed to relieve Colonel Kearney, and I then remained 
in charge of the work until 1856. 

During these last eleven years the appropriations for the work seldom exceeded 
|25,000 a year. In 1843 a small iron steamer was built for the work; it was to be 
propelled by the ** submerged horizontal tub wheel," an invention of Capt. W. W. 
Hunter, of the U. S. N. This mode of propulsion turned out, in this case, to be a 
perfect failure, and the boat called the " Surveyor " was never of any use until she 
was thrown ashore in the great gale, October, 1844, and whilst high and dry had her 
machinery reset and her '' tub wheels" replaced by paddle wheels of the ordinary 
form. • Since 1845 she has rendered excellent service. 

In 1856 Colonel];Kearney was directed to relieve me, and I turned over the work to 
him in the fall of 1856. Capt. G. G. Meade, of the Corps of Topographical Engineers, 
was the senior assistant to Colonel Kearney. He pushed the work forward rapidly, 
and was soon placed at the head^of it by orders from Washington directing him to 
relieve Colonel Kearney. In the last mouth of my service upon the work I received 
a fine iron steamer, which had been built for the survey by Messrs. Merrick & Sons, 
of Philadelphia. I named this boat the Search. When I gave up the survey there 
were two good iron steamers, a number of barges (generally for six oars), a fine as- 
sortment of instruments and camp equipage. 

About that time^the appropriations were much more liberal, so that my successor 
was enabled to expand the work, and to produce results with much greater rapidity. 

In 1861 Captain Meade was relieved by Col. James Duncan Graham, and joined 
the Army of- the Potomac in the field, and soon came to be its commanding general 
and a major-general in the United States Army. 

Colonel Graham was relieved by Lieut. Col. W. F. Eaynolds, in April, 1864, and in 
1870 Maj. C.B. Comstock, of the Corps of Engineers, relieved Colonel Eaynolds, and still 
remains in charge of this great and highlyjnteresting work. 

I regret that I didlnot^fall in with you during my brief visit to the Centennial in 
September, as I could have giveu'^you more information than I find it convenient to 
write . I hope I may have the pleasure of meeting you in the course of our duties. 

I should like very much to see your paper on the subject of the Lake Survey, and 
if I can add aiiything to it, or in any way improve it, I shall be glad to do it. 



REPORT 

ON THE 

EXHIBITION IN ITS RELATIONS TO THE ENGINEER SERVICE. 



Washinoton, D. C, December 15, 1876. 

Colonel: Iu obedience to your letter of May 26, 1876, asl^ing for a 
report ou the International Exhibition in its relations to my branch of 
the service, I have the honor to submit the following : 

Owing to the limited time which I could spare from the administration 
of the engineer section, the frequent difficulties and delays in collecting 
information, and the numberless interrui)tions incident to the Exhibition, 
the report is not so complete as I should wish it, but I believe that no 
important subject has been omitted. Capt. Jas. 0. Post and Lieut. E. 
H. Euffner, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., were detailed to assist me in 
the preparation of the report. The former prepared that portion of it 
relating to Military Engineering, and the latter wrote the articles on 
the I^ew Port of Commerce at Trieste, and on the Suez Canal. I am 
indebted to Col. H. W. Benham, Corjis of Engineers, brevet major-gen- 
eral, U. S. A., for a report on the Laying of Ponton Bridges, and for a 
description of his Picket Shovel; to Col. J. H. Simpson, Cori)s of Engi- 
neers, for a history of the Improvement of tlie Mississippi Eiver ; and to 
Lieut. Col. Q. A. Gillmore, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general 
U. S. A., for a valuable report on the cements shown at the Exhibition. 
General Gillmore, being one of the group of judges on this subject, had 
special facilities for obtaining information concerning it. 

The plan of construction of the report is a follows : 

Engineering is divided into civil and military. Civil engineering is 
subdivided into engineering works and mechanical api)liances, the 
former being described under the head of the nation in which they were 
constructed, the latter under the head of the class to which they belong. 

So far as possible the same alphabetical order has been maintained 
iu the body of the report as in the index. 

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

D. P. HEAP, 
Captain of Engineers^ 
In charge of Engineer Section^ War Department Exhibit. 

Col. S. C. Lyford, 

Representative of War Department^ Washington. 

(371) 



CIVIL ENGINEERING. 
I.-E:l^^G^II^^EEI?,I]s^GJ^ "st^orks. 

THE NEW PORT OF COMMERCE AT TRIESTE. 

There is exhibited in the Austro- Hungary section of the main build- 
ing two colored wall maps giving plans and sections of the work now 
in progress at this harbor ; and there is also a volume of drawings of 
the same giving full details of the plan adopted. 

This general plan may be described as follows: An entirely new har-* 




A. D. 1650. 

bor is being constructed near to and in part overlapping the present 
one. Three large basins will be formed separated from each other and 
from the other parts of the bay by moles or quays of masonry and 
earth work. A breakwater of similar construction will be placed par- 
allel to the front of the line of the new front and at a short distance 
from it. The harbor thus formed will be dredged to a dei3th sufficient 
to accommodate the largest ships of the Austrian Navy. The quays 
and the neighboring land will be brought to a proper level for the lo- 
(372) 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



373 



cation of railroads and warehouses for the benefit of commerce. In 
construction certain difficulties required caution. The bed of the har- 
bor consists 01 a slime or mud of at least ^^ feet in depth. The in 




UL) ULIU!,<a 






\. 




A. D. 1768. 



stability of the retaining walls of the quays built over this foundation 
gave trouble which was overcome by — 
(1) Dredging a ditch for the reception of the rock work. 







DdDD' 




A. D. 1835. 



(2) A layer of good material (gravel mixed with fine limestone, &c.) 
of 10 to 13 feet thickness was placed throughout the whole length of 
these moles or quays. 

(3) In a full profile of the masonry work. 



374 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



(4) In carefully executed retaining walls. 

In weak places of these walls three rows of foundation blocks were 
placed instead of one, and strong counterforts, made of four blocks in 
height, were placed at distances of 1 yard from each other. The work 
done with these precautions has given good results up to the present 
time. 

From the year 1868 to the end of 1875 the South Austrian Company 
constructed for che Government the following amount of work : 

Cubic yards. 

Earthwork 3,533,169 

Rock work 1,619,566 

Quay walls 125,830 

Dredging i 865,373 



Total 6,143,938 







QhriD^DDDQ 



DDDC 
°DDr 

□ODD 




A. D. 1857. 

The breakwater was commenced in 1868, completed in 1874, and 
turned over to the Government in August, 1875. The surface of this 
work is equal to 2.82 acres, and the length of its quay wall is 3,960 
feet inside to the harbor. The first basin was commenced in 1868, 
completed in 1875, and turned over to the Government in December, 
1875. It has a depth of from 28 to 39 feet, and a surface area of 14.37 
acres. The remaining work is unfinished, but the following figures 
give the condition when completed : 

Surface of the second basin, 28 to 39 feet in depth, 14.85 acres. 

Surface of the third basin, 28 to 39 feet in depth, 14.65 acres. 

The protection of the new harbor from possible danger from two 
mountain torrents, Martesin and Klutsch, forms a part of the work, and 



l^HE ENGINEER SECTION 



375 



permanent sewers or sluices will be made. A new landing place will 
also be constructed, and this necessitates the destruction of nearly all 




JODDDD 
nDHDODD 




A. D. 1875. 



existing buildings on the chosen site and the lowering of the level about 
23 feet. The goods warehouses are partially completed. The passe n- 



ProfileAB 




— \ \.-^)^^-'^ 



J-..'JL 



ger station, locomotive shops, and the remaining earthwork cuttings 
are all completed or nearly so. When the whole work is finished there 



Zl^ 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



will be an available surface over the quays of 54 acres nearly, and over 
the four moles of 17^ acres. The length of the quay wall will be 7,687 
feet. The surface of the entire landing yard or wharf will be 63.13 
acres. 

The foundations of the breakwater are placed 53 feet below low-water 
mark. The width is 212 feet. Ten feet of gravel and fine material 
form the center. A covering of 13 feet of broken stone is placed over 
this. The remainder consists of blocks of stone from 2.5 to 4 cubic 



ProfileCD 




t&::r ' A', ;.r, , 1 






yards in size, and on the outer sloi^e, within 15 feet of the surface, the 
blocks are larger. The inner and outer slopes are 3 : 2. 

The quay walls of the breakwater are similar to those of the moles. 
They are 20 feet below low water ; of concrete blocks, 12 feet through. 
Above low water cut-stone walls 10 J feet rise. The masonry is backed 
by concrete to a width of 6.5 feet. The slopes of the foundations of the 
moles are more gentle than those of the breakwater, and range from 1:2 
on the first mole to 1 :4 on the others. In the construction of Moles II 
and III the pressure of the earth filling is kept from the quay wall by an 
internal dike of broken stone, with a base of 100 feet and slopes pre- 
sented to the earth of 2 : 3. 

Sketches are submitted herewith showing the condition of the harbor 
in 1650, 1768, 1835, 1857, and 1875. A plate shows the contour lines 
of the harbor before the new work was begun, and profiles exhibit the 
depths before and after the work was done. These were copied from 
the manuscript volume of plates already referred to. 

A cross-section (Plate 1) is given of the breakwater as completed, 
and longitudinal sections of the three moles or piers. Lastly, a plan 
(Plate 2) of the entire work as completed up to June, 1876, is furnished. 




T 



^^Sai) 







NEW PORT OF COMMERCE 
at Trieste. 



Pl.l. 



STANDARD SECTION OF CONSTRUCTION. 
1. Governmeni sicxntJotT^d section. fT^ier I ana^ rrTtay/'j.) 



JjOyy -kvuie7: 




r^'^roAeh sioni^^nc/ •small^rnaieriocl ,', V-'*,''' 






2. /Sictnoiccrd <seciion modi/'isci. (jP-ierllcc-nci^^TiccT'PII.) 
JjOtt rrocier. 






^rh 



NEW PORT or COMMERCL 

A T 

T R. IF STE . 



Conol-iiionoJ'fheyfork ai ike end o/' J87e 




THE ENGIXEER SECTION. 1)77 

showing the harbor work aud also the land work, or that necessary to 
prepare the landing and railroad depots. 

Since the preceding was written (by Lieutenant Euffiier), there has 
been received from Mr. Fr. Bomches, engineer-in -chief of the new port 
of commerce at Trieste, an account of the system of construction as 
carried out, which I (Captain Heap) translate and insert here, as it con- 
tains some important modificatioiis of the original plan. 

SYSTEM OF CONSTRUCTION. 

The muddy nature of tlie bottom, souudings to a depth of 20 meters showing only 
mud without reaching solid earth, requires the employment of a system of construc- 
tion which would overcome the inconveniences resulting from the mobility of the 
earth aud insure the solidity of the walls of the quays in spite of unforeseen move- 
ments. 

When it is necessary to build on muddy ground, the maiu difficulty consists in con- 
tending against the enormous masses in movement, of which neither the time, direc- 
tion, nor duration can be foreseen. In such cases building on piles is entirely ex- 
cluded, for they would have to penetrate to very great depths, and would never as- 
sure the stability of the work. Ou the other hand, the use of pneumatic foundations 
would need excessive outlay on account of the enormous depths at which the solid 
earth would be met. The only means remaining, then, at the sajne tim^efficacious 
and economical, consisted in applying good material to the bottom iu order to pre- 
pare a solid foundation for the quay-wall. 

The system advantageously employed in the French ports consists in establishing 
submarine dikes of loose stone upon which the quay-walls rest by the intervention of 
a foundation of artificial blocks. When the walls are built the pier is finished by 
filling the interior with earth. The componeut parts of the pier are shown in the stand- 
ard section (profil-type) adopted (see PL 1, Fig. 1). 

The process described was followed iu the first pier, without, however, leading to 
good results, notwithstanding that limestone was used almost exclusively even for the 
interior filling The difficulty was as follows: 

(1.) Lack of sufficient resistance of the loose stone and wall of blocks to with- 
stand the lateral thrust of the filling advancing as a whole and sliding upon the 
muddy bottom in the direction of the greatest inclination (south side and head of the 
pier), causing a general dislocation of the alignments of the quay walls, and in conse- 
quence a considerable alteration of the original dimensions of the work. 

(2.) Penetration of several courses of artificial blocks iu the loose stone on account 
of the entire body of the filling sinking considerably in the mud. This required the 
use of more than double the number of artificial blocks anticipated, on account of 
having to replace the sunken courses by others superposed upon them. 
^ (3.) The necessity of repairing the walls of blocks which were changed as much in 
the horizontal as in the vertical direction ; this was necessary in order to re-establish 
both the conditions of stability and the best alignment. 

The experience gained in Pier I has led to essential modifications of the sj'stem de- 
scribed — viz : 

I. Dredging a ditch below the loose stone in order to deposit them as deep as possi- 
ble and to augment in consequence their resistance to lateral displacement due to the 
thrust of the filling. The dredging, only 8 to 9 meters deep in the first two basins, 
was pushed as far as 12 meters in the third basin- In order to increase the above- 
mentioned depth, large natural blocks, weighing as high as 4,000 kilograms (8,S20 
pounds), have been placed in the ditch, and their weight has caused them to penetrate 
the mud 3 meters more. 

II. Establishing a general bed of good material (gravel and limestone chips), 3 to 4 
meters thick, under the entire width of the pier. 



^-rg INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

III. The increase of the dimensions of the section of the loose stone by widening 
the berm and decreasing the slope. 

IV. Establishing a dike of defense (pari passu with the loose stone) built of choice 
material, i. e., of broken limestone, in order to protect the earthwork from the at- 
tacks of the sea. 

V. 'Joining the parallel lines of the longitudinal quays by two traverses constructed 
of choice material like the dikes of defense, and at the same time with them. 

VI. Building the walls of blocks after the filling was completed. 

These modifications are shown in the standard sections adopted for the last two 
basins (see PI. 1, Figs. 2, and 3). 

The adoption of these modifications has eliminated the two inconveniences mentioned 
under 1 and 2, without, however, entirely preventing the alteration of the alignment 
of the quays and the consequent necessity of rebuilding the walls of blocks. 

It should be mentioned here that the derangement of the alignments was partly 
due to the dredging done at the foot of the walls to remove the mud pressed up on ac- 
count of the sinking of the entire body of the filling; the raising of this counterpoise 
aided the lateral thrust of the prism of the filling behind the blocks and thus facili- 
tated the movement of the walls in a horizontal direction. 

To diminish as much as possible this lateral movement and to transform it into a 
vertical sinking, a last modification of the system has been introduced, consisting in— 

VII. The increase of the weight of the wall of blocks, not only by placing upon it 
three courses of blocks but also by establishing counterforts composed of four blocks 
superposed, the counterforts being placed in front of the wall and 1 meter apart, 
drawing. 



See 







/ r 



This course has given such good results on Pier III that the dredging at the foot 
of the walls north and south of the work could be carried to a depth of 8.50 meters 
without cracking the courses of blocks. 

En resume, the modifications introduced consist in dredging a ditch for the subma- 
rine dikes, in establishing a general bed of good material upon the site of the pier, in 
increasing the amount of loose stone, in constructing a dike of defense for the filling, 
and in changing the order of execution of the dilferent details of the work. 

These modifications in the works of the Basins II and III do not apply to the break- 
water (see PL 1, Fig. 4). Here the horizontal plan of the bottom, the great depth of 
water, the symmetry of cross-section, the nearly exclusive use of natural blocks for 
the double purpose of solidity and economy, and the almost entire completion of the 
body of the breakwater, before placing the blocks, have contributed to a sensibly 
vertical descent of the work without producing any lateral movements. 

FR. BOMCHES. 

Trieste, Austria, Novemler, 1876. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 3.79 



FRANCE. 

The '-'• Department of Public Works " of France exhibits a remarkably 
fine display of models, charts, drawings, and photographs of the works 
of the Corps des *' Fonts et Chaussees" and of the ''Mines." 

The "Fonts et Chaussees" include the roads, railways, internal navi- 
gation, maritime works, light-houses and beacons, water supply of towns 
and canals, and " Central Society for the Rescue." The '' Mines " include 
various geological maps of Franqe. 

A special building was erected by the French Government where the 
above objects were displayed with good taste and to advantage. 

A descriptive catalogue was also published in both French and Eng- 
lish, under the title of "Notices on the Models, Charts, and Drawings, 
relating to the works of the 'Fonts et Chaussees' and the Mines.'^ 
Copies of this work were distributed on application to all engineers. 

The following notices on engineering works in France were condensed 
from the above work : 

NAViaATION BETWEEN PARIS AND AUXERRE — SUBSTITUTION OF 
CONTINUOUS NAVIGATION FOR THE INTERMITTENT SYSTEM OF 
" ECLUSEES " ON THE YONNE. * 

The water communication between Auxerre and Paris follows the line 
of the Yonne between Auxerre and Montereau, for a distance of 119,586", 
and that of the Seine between Montereau and Paris for a distance of 
98,000"^ ; total length, 217,586'° 5 the navigation between Auxerre and 
Paris was intermittent for more than three centuries, and during eight or 
nine months in the year, from March to November, was carried on by 
means of eclusees of the Upper Yonne. 

The continuous system of navigation, procuring a minimum depth of 
water of 1"\60, has been in operation since the month of September, 
1871, between Paris and Laroche, and since the month of September, 
1874, as far as Auxerre. This result has been brought about by the 
establishment of 12 movable barrages with locks, on the Seine, and 25 
movable barrages on the Yonne. Twenty of these latter are provided 
with locks, and 3 come under the head of cuttings. 

THE RIVER YONNE. 

The course of the river Yonne between Auxerre and Montereau is 
divided into two parts. The first part, between Auxerre and Laroche, 
27,616'^ in length, is from 60"^ to 80"^ in breadth. The second part, 

* J^clusees on the river Yonne are temporary and factitious risings of water, created 
by the regular and successive closing and opening of the navigable passages and 
barrages established along its course, and these bodies of water carry the various 
boats, rafts, &c. 



380 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

from Laroche to Montereau, 91,976™ in length, has a breadth of from 
80™ to 100™. 

Of the 25 locks on the Yonne, 22 have a breadth of 10°^.50 and a 
working length of 96™ ; they are thus able to receive 6 canal boats 
or 2 rafts of wood coupled. 

The 3 other locks, which are old, leave a breadth of 8"^.30 5 two of these, 
namely, ifipineau and Port Eenard, have a working length of 181 meters, 
and can also receive 6 canal-boats or 2 wood raits. The third, that of 
Ohainette, at Auxerre, has a working length of 93°^, and can receive 3 
boats or 1 raft. 

All the gates of the locks are of wood, and each gate is worked by a 
circular rack and pinion with a winch. 

Between Auxerre and Montereau there are 25 movable barrages and 
3 cuttings. Three of the 25 are old, and on the system Poiree ; that is 
to say, they have a permanent or fixed weir, in masonry, and a passage 
closed by trestles and needles. These are the barrages of Ohainette, 
Epineau, and Port Eenard. The 22 new barrages have a passage closed 
by movable shutters (Ohanoine's system), worked by a bar furnished 
with cams, and by the aid of a boat. In 13 barrages between Laroche 
and Montereau, the weir is surmounted by movable shutters and worked 
by the aid of a foot-bridge, and in 6 between Auxerre and Laroche 
the weir is surmounted by trestles and needles, with a foot-bridge at 
least 25™ above the head water level. This foot-bridge has not been 
raised to the usual height, owing to an apprehension that the needles 
might be difficult to work. One barrage only, that of I'lle Brulee 
near Auxerre, is fitted with large shutters (Girard's system). 

The sill of the passage is generally placed 50™ or 60™ below low- 
water mark, but the capping of the weirs of the 3 barrages, on Poiree's 
system, is level with the head water, the sill of the other weirs is 50™ 
below low- water mark. 

In order to avoid abrupt bends in the river, 3 cuttings have been 
made, viz : 

Meters- 

That of Griigy, witli a length of 5, 007 

That of Joigny, with a length of 3, 574 

That of Oourton, with a length of 4, 134 

These three cuttings shorten the distance from Montereau to Auxerre, 
by 11,309™. At the head of each cutting there is a stop-gate to keep 
out the tlood water. The breadth at the bottom of each cutting is 16™, 
and the depth below the normal level of the water 1'".80, with a talus 
of 3™ of base for 2™ of height, which gives a breadth of 21"^.40 at the 
surface of the water. The banks or towing paths are from 4™to 6™ in 
breadth and are elevated at least 50=™ above the highest inundations 
known. The passage under the bridges is reduced to 10'^.50, and the 
height of the intrados above the level of the water is 5™.50. 



I 



M 



m 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 38 I 

THE RIVER SEINE. 

Between Moutereau and Moret, for 12 kilometers, the Seine has a 
breadth of 100"^ to 110™. Between Moret and Paris the breadth is 
from 110™ to 170™. 

The navigable condition of the Seine between Monterean and Paris^ 
previous to the month of September, 1871, was powerfully influenced 
by the system of " eclusees " on the Yonne, so that for nearly three- 
quarters of the year navigation was intermittent. This precarious and 
inconvenient state of things on a river of such importance as the Seine 
has ceased to exist since the month of September, 1871, owing to the 
construction of 12 barrages during the last, few years, between Mon- 
tereau and Paris. These 12 barrages are constructed on the Chanoine's 
system. The barrages at Melun have alone retained for the river the 
trestle and needle system in use on the right branch of the Seine. 

Experience has led to the detection of some faults in the working of 
the original shutters, and a movable foot-bridge on trestles, with a 
plank flooring, has been constructed on the upper or head side of the 
shutter-weir. 

3I0VA.BLE SHUTTEE-^VEIRS ON THE UPPER SEINE ABOVE PARIS. 

(Drawings and models.) 

The barrages of the Upper Seine consist of two parts. A navigahle 
imssage from 40"' to 50™ and a iceir of from 60™ to 70™ in breadth, pro- 
vided with movable shutters. The two parts are separated by a pier, 
and a lock isrgenerally joined to the barrage. 

The sill of the navigable passage is placed 0"^.60 below low- water mark. 
The shutters are 3™ in height and are level with the water, which gives 
2^.10 for the depth of the upi3er or head water above the low water 
mark. 

A shutter consists of a wooden frame and of a wrought-iron trestle 
and prop; the trestle is a trapezium, strengthened by a cross-bar; the 
prop is a wrought-iron bar, and is intended to support the shutter and 
the weight of the head water. It is joined to the top of the trestle by 
a bolt, and the lower end abuts against a cast-iron shoe or catchy 
strongly imbedded in the flooring. This shoe, in the form of an inclined 
plane, is inserted into two widened ears, and has a guide-bar, much 
bent, terminated by an ear. AYhen it is desired to lower the shutter, 
the end of the prop is removed, and as soon as it leaves the front of the 
shoe it slides along the guide bar, while the tres'^^le, turning on its base, 
falls with the shutter on the flooring. To raise it the base is furnished 
with a broad iron handle, with which the keeper connects a hook at- 
tached to a rope. Then, by means of a small winch fixed in a boat for 
this purpose, the various parts are successively raised, the breech, the 
trestle, and lastly the prop, the foot of which moves up the inclined 




MOVABLE SHUTTER WEIRS 
Chanolne System. 



( 



382 IXTERXATIOXAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

plane, aucl resumes its place against the shoe. The fall of water assists 
this operation to a considerable extent, since it tends to raise the frame 
of the shutter, of which the axis of rotation is placed at a certain height 
above the sill. 

The operation of opening a passage is performed from the bank, and 
bj^ the aid of the winch, in 3 seconds per meter run, the closing is ef- 
fected with a boat at the rate of 1^ minutes. 

The weirs of the Upper Seiue are from 60"' to 70" in length. They 
are leveled to 0^.50 above low- water mark. 

The self-acting shutters of the weirs are 2™ in height by 1"^.30 in 
breadth and are formed like those of the passages, according to the 
original system conceived by M. Chanoine, engineer-in-chief, %. e., to 
rise and fall of themselves. 

Owing to the position of the axis of rotation, these shutters raise and 
lower themselves, this axis being only raised 0"^.05 above the third of 
their height ; there is also a movable counterpoise. 

The striking simplicity of this ingenious sj^stem of shutters, called self- 
acting, led to some isolated experiments being made in a single barrage. 
But the working of the system being more completely tested by its ap- 
plication to twelve weirs on the Seine, between Montereau and Paris, 
some grave miscalculations were made apparent. The self-acting shut- 
ters lowered themselves too quickly, and did not rise till after a lower- 
ing of one meter of the upper or head water. 

A foot-bridge, composed of iron trestles on the Poiree system, was con- 
structed above each weir to work the shutters. The counterpoises, be- 
ing no longer useful, have been removed. 

The new system has been a complete success. At night every keeper 
is warned of any variations in the upper water of the barrage, by the 
ringing of a bell put in motion by a float. In addition, all the barrages 
communicate with each other by telegraph, aud the excellence of the 
arrangements precludes the possibility of surprise. 

NEW NAVIGABLE PASSAGE OF THE PORT-A-L' ANGLAIS BARRAGE. 

In consequence of fresh arrangements for establishing an uninter- 
rupted passage by the Seine to Paris, it became necessary to lower by 
1'" the tail sill of the lock at Port-a-FAnglais ; this required, to sus- 
tain the increased pressure of water, a corresponding increase in the 
height and strength of the shutters. 

The new shutters are 3"^. 70 by 1"^ (instead of 3^ by 1"^.20) ; the frame- 
work is simplified, the inclination increased from 8^ to 20^, and the axis 01 
rotation placed only 15"" below the axis of figure. Small butterfly 
valves have been contrived to prevent the shutters from turning spon- 
taneously. 

The shutters are worked from trestle bridge (Poiree's system), on which 
travels a winch. 

(See page 688, Chief of Engineers' Eeport, Part 1, 1875, for more de- 
tailed description.) 



THE ENGIXEER SECTION. 'l^Z'}) 

WEIR OF THE BARRAGE OF L'ILE BRtLEE ON THE YONNE. 

(M. Girard's system of sluices and hydraulic jiresses, drawings aud a 

model.) 

The weir of I'lle Brulee is surmounted by large sluices invented by 
M. Girard, civil engineer. This system comprises — 

(1.) A series of wooden sluices, movable round a horizontal axis and 
capable of turning inside a cast-iron cylinder, or case, let into the top of 
a stone flooring. 

(2.) Hydraulic presses fixed on the lower slope of the platform, solidly 
anchored in the masonry and intended to work each sluice. The pis- 
ton-rod of each of these presses carries a cross-beam guided by slide 
bars, by which it is supported, and to this cross-beam are fitted three 
connecting rods joined to another cross-beam attached to the middle of 
the movable sluices. 

(3.) A series of copper tubes, which put each i)ress in communication- 
with the generators and reservoirs of force, destined to convey the wa- 
ter under pressure to the hydraulic presses. 

(4.) A hydraulic machine constructed on the abutment of the barrage. 
This machine consists of a turbine with vertical axis, a double-action 
pump worked by the turbine, and a generator. The pumx3s and gener- 
ator communicate with each other and with the presses by the medium 
of three-way cocks, which allow the water to be forced back either into 
the generator or into the presses, or to be discharged into a waste 
pipe. 

The working of the sluices is performed by the simple action of these 
cocks. By putting each ijress in communication, either with the pumps 
or with the reservoir, under suf&cient pressure an upward movement of 
the piston is produced, and the sluice rises. On the other hand, by 
opening the discharge cock the water escapes under the pressure of the 
sluice valve, the body of the pump is emptied and the sluice is lowered. 
The reservoir of force regulates the action of the pumps; it also allows 
the sluices to be raised when there is not sufficient fall to work the 
turbine. 

The cost of construction of this system of barrage is 2,000 francs per 
meter run, and 3,000 francs with the stone-work. 

The trestle and needle weir costs only 1,200 francs per meter run, 
everything included, in this part of the Yonne where the foundation 
work is not difficult. The hydraulic press system, notwithstanding its 
superiority in convenience of working, has the disadvantage of being 
very costly. 

(See page 688, Chief of Engineers' Eeport, Part I, 1875, for more de- 
tailed description.) 




HYDRAULIC SHUTTER WEIRS. 
Cirard System 



384 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

MOVABLE WICKET WEIRS OF THE BARRAGES ON THE MARNE. 

(Desfontaine's system.— Model ) 




Drum shutters.— Desfontaine's system. 

Between 1855 and 1867 fourteen barrages were constructed to im- 
prove the navigation of the lower Marne, between Epernay and Cha- 
renton (Seine), a distance of 178 kilometers. Of this number eleven com- 
prise a weir fitted with movable wickets, in addition to a lock and navi- 
gable passage. The excellence of this system has now been completely 
tested by the experience of eighteen years, and was invented by the late 
M. Desfontaines, chief engineer of the navigation of the Marne, after- 
wards nominated inspector-general des ponts et chaussees, and who 
died in 1867. 

General idea of drum shutters.— Let the reader imagine an iron plate 
sluice or valve, 2 meters in height by 1'".50 in breadth, movable around 
a horizontal fixed axis, and capable of describing a quadrant. If the 
axis is placed at the top of the fixed weir, the upper part of the valve 
will form a movable wicket, while the lower part or counter-wicket 
moves in a species of drum, the axis of which is horizontal. The trans- 
verse section of this drum, parallel to the axis of the river, consists of 
a quadrant joined on the lower or tail side by a rectangle. 

The wicket is moved by the counter- wicket, and the motive power is 
the pressure resulting from the difference between the ui^per and lower 
water valves, or in other words, the head and tail of the barrage. It 
is therefore a question of the effective application of this power to the 
counter- wicket. 

If the drum is closed at the ends b}^ two vertical plates, and covered 
on a level with the axis of rotation by a horizontal plate, a closed box 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 385 

will be formed divided mto two compartments by the counter-wicket, 
two sectors, the dimensions of which vary according to the position of 
the counter- wicket. When it turns, the counter- wicket nearlj^ touches, 
or within 3 or 4 millimeters, the cylinder and the vertical ends of the 
drum. But when, with the wicket, it is in a vertical position, a ledge 
or projection completely stops its passage, and by the aid of an india- 
rubber band, the surface of contact is rendered i^erfectly water-tight. 

This counter-wicket does not, however, i^roloug the wicket; it is bent 
from the hinge and only resumes a position i^arallel to the wicket at a 
distance of 0"^.30 or 0"\40. It follows from this, that the wicket being 
in a horizontal position, the counter- wicket, though also horizontal, 
leaves a space of 0™.40 between it and the cylinder. i^Tow by putting 
this space in communication with the upper water level, while the lower 
space, more or less empty, is put in communication with the lower or 
tail-water, the counter- wicket will descend and the wicket will rise, not- 
withstanding the static and dynamic i^ressure, which tends to retain the 
wicket in a horizontal position. 

M. Desfontaines has contrived a culvert with valves, in the abutment 
barrage, by means of which the water can act as above. 

Historical. — At the present time, when Desfontaine's system is to be 
officially presented to the notice of American engineers, it may not be 
out of place to supplement the preceding notice by a few explanatory 
remarks concerning its origin and development. 

This system appertains to a class of barrages, of which the prominent 
and common feature consists in the fact of the fall constituting the mo- 
tive power. In Holland, from time immemorial, fan gates have been 
employed to close the irrigation canals. The unequal breadth of this 
kind of gate renders it susceptible to the power generated by a mod- 
erate lift. This method is still in use at the present day, and was rep- 
resented by a model in the Universal Exhibition at Yienna in 1873.* 

Probably the idea passed from Holland to America, for about the year 
1818 it was applied on the river Lehigh, in Penusj'lvania, not in the form 
of gates with vertical quoin-posts, but with horizontal axis. It was no- 
ticed in the work of Michael Chevalier published in 1843, and advocated 
by M. Mary, the result of which was its trial in France, on the upper 
Marue, by MM. Desfontaines and Fleur Saint Denis. Although the work 
could not have been in more skillful hands, the first expectations were 
not realized. But this attempt failed not to leave in the inventive mind 
of M. Desfontaines the germ of an idea, which carefully considered and 
diligently elaborated has produced the present system. 

The French Government now returns to the United States the Ameri- 
can barrage perfected under French auspices. 

""Also exhibited at this International Exhibition in the Netherland section. See 
Blaukin's gates. 
25 CEis" 



386 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

MOVABLE TRESTLE BARRAGE AT MARTOT ON THE SEINE. 

(Models.) 

The works of the Martot barrage consist of a lock, of which the 
chamber is 105 meters by 12 meters, a first barrage connecting the lock 
with Geoffroy Island, a weir, with self-acting shutters, between this island 
and the island of Moine, and a second barrage between the island of 
Moine and the left bank. 

This last, a part of which is represented by the model, is composed of 
three passages, 51 meters in breadth, between two abutments and three 
I)iers, the former 6 meters and the latter 4.10 meters in thickness by 8 
meters in length. 

The movable trestles are established according to the system of M. 
Poiree, and are sustained and bound at the top by bars above and be- 
low the weir. The up-stream bars, that support the neec les, are formed 
of two flat bars of iron riveted to each other and having at each end a 
hole fitting the trestle gudgeon. The down-stream bars are in round 
iron. 

The service bridge consists of three rows of planking upon three 
trestles, and is furnished beneath with flanges which clasp the T irons 
to prevent slipping ; the planks are also held by small clasps. 

The trestles have no system of escape for the water ; the needles, 
which are of pine, have to be placed or moved by hand one after the 
other. 

The cost of this barrage, including earth-work, dredging, pumping, 
accessory works and direction, amounted to 708,000 francs, or 4,050 francs 
per meter run. 

For further information regarding movable hydraulic gates and dams 
the reader is referred to report by G. Weitzel, major of Engineers, bre- 
vet major-general, U. S. A., and W. E. Merrill, major of Engineers, and 
brevet colonel, U. S. A., 1875, Forty-third Congress, second session^ 
Executive document, 78. 

CAISSON OF THE COFFER-DAM OF THE BASIN AT BREST. 

(Drawings.) 

In 1867 it was found essential to replace the basin of oldest date in 
the port of Brest. The new one required a length of 112°^.70, a breadth 
of lock 21™.70, and 8.™50 of water in the lock at the lowest neap-tides. 
For this purpose it was necessary to construct a coffer-dam founded on 
the compressed-air system, by means of a unique caisson 27 meters in 
length by 8™.50 in breadth, and 10^.50 in height, attached at one end 
to a wall of masonry j)reviously built, and at the other to the solid rock ; 
also to erect a general wall upon the whole. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



.87 




Caisson of cofifer-daru at Brest. 



388 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

This work was remarkable for the exceptional dimensions of the cais- 
son, the necessity of removing the apparatus, and the difficulties occa- 
sioned by tidal movements. 

At the bottom of the caisson was a large working chamber, strength- 
ened in various ways and divided into three parts, each provided with 
a shaft surmounted by an air-chamber. 

Above this first chamber was a second, 21 meters in length and in- 
tended to facilitate the taking to pieces that part of the caisson which 
was to be removed at the termination of the works, in order to leave 
the entrance of the basin clear of obstruction. 

The lower part, comprising the working chamber, was obliged to be 
lowered sufficiently to allow the free passage of vessels; and it was 
considered more advantageous to preserve it, as a protecting wall in 
front of the lock, than to remove it. This conviction suggested the plan 
of a double working chamber, and a caisson in two parts, each of which 
constituted a separate caisson and was fastened to the other by bolts. 

Above the second working chamber was an open compartment, which 
could be closed and rendered air-tight if necessary. This compartment 
was divided into two parts, one 21 meters in length, corresponding to 
the portion of the caisson which was to be removed; the other, 6 meters, 
in the line of the quay wall and intended to remain in its position. 

At each extremity were three large grooves, 1 meter in section, de- 
scending vertically to the bottom of the lower chamber, of which the 
side opposite the rock was extended by an incliued plane, in order to 
fit the edge of the caisson. 

These grooves were open next to the rock, and were destined, by fill- 
ing them with beton, to form an air and water tight connection between 
the caisson and the side of the rock. A manhole was contrived in the 
lower part, in the inclined plane just mentioned, so that from the work- 
ing chamber the grooves could be cleaned before filling them with beton. 

In July, 1867, this caisson was put together in one of the graving 
docks of the port of Brest, and when finished weighed 170 tons. 

In September it was ballasted with stone-work, increasing the weight 
to 240 tons, then taken like a boat to the spot required, and grounded 
in the precise position previously assigned to it. 

At the commencement of the sinking, the work suffered considerably 
from tidal agitation until the caisson w-as sufacientl3^ weighed to admit 
of injecting air and carrying on the work continuously in the chamber. 

Two blast engines established on the bank, and moved by a 30 horse- 
l)Ower engine, conveyed to the working chamber nearly 400 cubic me- 
ters of air per hour. 

A portable engine, also on shore, worked the three hoists established 
in the shafts by means of transmission lines and pulleys. 

The excavated earth was discharged into mud-lighters alongside the 
caisson. 

To avoid injury to the edge of the caisson by the weight of the stone- 



THE EXG INKER SECTIOX. 389 

work, it was supported inside the working chamber by shores resting 
on the rock, and tightened at the upper part by means of wooden soles 
and wedges. 

The masonry above the working chamber was built with mortar of 
1 cubic meter of sand to O^'^.oo of hydraulic lime and 100 kilograms of 
Portland cement. 

The portion of the coffer-dam above the side of the caisson was con- 
structed without difficulty at low water. 

The junction of tlje caisson with the sides of the basin required 
particular care, and necessitated the employment of diving apparatus 
in order to thoroughly clean the grooves. 

The work was finished in April, 1808. The filtration was only 10 cu- 
bic uieters per hour. 

In April, 1869, the works of the basin being finished, the demolition 
and removal of the coffer-dam were proceeded with. For this purpose, 
before letting the water into the basin, and by continual pumping, the 
part of the caisson to be removed was detached as comi)letely as pos- 
sible from the masonry to which it adhered. This was accomplished by 
opening two little galleries at the two extremities, to nearly 50 centi- 
meters from the exterior facing. The water was then allowed to enter 
the basin. At the rising of the tkle the masonry above the caisson was 
demolished. The stone- work in the open compartment was also demol- 
ished at the flow of the tide, but pumping was necessary to carry out 
this work. 

The deujolition of the masonry in the second working chamber was 
commenced in open air. A longitudinal gallery was made, before re- 
placing the air-chambers on the shafts, and the work was then contin- 
ued with compressed air. The masonry was then removed. Then, the 
caisson being sufficiently freed from weight, the bolts holding it were 
drawn, and it floated by i^umping out the. upper compartment. This 
operation was successfully performed on 26th June, 1869. In short, the 
construction of the coffer-dam was accomplished in seven months, and 
its demolition in two months and a half. 

These works were executed by contract, at a cost of 376,000 francs, 
without reckoning 4,640 francs forthe extraction and clearance of wood, 
iron, &c , from beneath the edge of the caisson. 



(A drawing and a longitudinal section.) 

For the entire distance of 127 kilometers between Roen and Havre 
the navigation of the Seine is completely free. There is neither rock 
nor bridge, nor obstacle of any kind, to obstruct the progress of vessels. 
With the exception of the passage of the Meules, between la Maille-raye 
and Candebec, 62 kilometers from Eouen, the draught of water, at the 
weakest flood tides, exceeds 5 meters. And even in the Meules during 



390 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

the year 1875 there were only twelve days when the anchorage was less 
than 5 meters. 

In 1845, the average tonnage of 4,795 vessels entering Eouen with 
cargo was 102 tons. In 1875 the number of vessels entering was 1,440, 
carrying 416,833 tons of goods. The average tonnage thus attained to 
289 tons per vessel. 

In the same year, 1875, two days after the first quarter of the moon, 
and consequently neap-tide, there entered Rouen a steamer laden with 
1,080 tons of oats, and drawins: 5™.19 of water. On the 7th September, 
the very day of the first quarter, another steamer entered, laden with 1,050 
tons of goods and drawing 5°^.33. In short, the premiums of insurance, 
which were formerly one-half per cent, for the single journey of the Seine, 
are negotiated to-day at the same rate for Eouen as for Havre. 

These prosperous results are owing to the improvement of the Seine, 
by means of various works undertaken by the Government since the 
year 1848, and which consist in narrowing the bed of the river by em. 
banking in stone parallel to the stream. 

This system was applied for the first time at the crossing of Villequier, 
one of the most dangerous passages of the Seine. Two longitudina^ 
embankments, 300 meters apart, and made flush a little above the aver, 
age high water at spring-tides, had the desired effect, and a depth of 
6™.50 was created below this level, where formerly was only 3"^.50. 

This success fully bearing out the expectations of the engineers, the 
embankments were continued, and, from 1849 to 1866, they were ex 
tended as far as the mouth of the Eisle, 32 kilometers below Ville- 
quier. In addition to this, the southern embankment was established 
for 2 kilometers below the Eisle. Above Villequier, embankments 
were formed for 11 kilometers of total development. This part of the 
work was executed in short lengths, from 1852 to 1875, so as to reach la 
Maille-raye, a small river port 60 kilometers below Eouen. 

With respect to the interval between the embankments, it increases 
progressively after leaving la Vaquerie, where the width is still 300 
meters, as at Villequier. Before Quilleboeuf it reaches 400 meters, and 
at Tancarville, 500. From this point, as far as the Eisle, the embank- 
ments are exactly parallel. 

Between the Eisle and the great depths of water in front of Havre 
the Seine has regularly kept to the southern part of the bay since the 
winter of 1871-1^72. ^ 

The sides of the navigable channel are clearly indicated by beacons, 
carefully kept in order. An official report of the soundings, drawn up 
every fortnight, keeps the pilots informed of the number of meters and 
centimeters necessary to be added to the indications of the semaphores 
of Havre and Honfleur. By this means they know, at any time of the 
day, the minimum depth, of water throughout the whole length of the 
channel. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



391 



All the einbaukinents have beeu constructed with blocks procured 
from the chalky hills bordering the Seine. They measure, on the av- 
erage, one-eighth of a cubic meter, and are piled one upon the other. 
The facings, starting from the level of ebb-tide, and the cappings are 
the only parts laid by hand. Generally speaking, the embankments 
are 2 meters in breadth at the top, and on the land side the talus is in- 
clined to 450, while on the channel side the inclination varies in pro- 
l)ortion to the nature of the bottom and the violence of the currents of 
ebb and flow, so that at certain points the base is 7 or 8 meters for one 
meter in height. 

These works are, for the most part, on the same level as those of Vil- 
lequier. By way of experiment, some low embankments, leveled to 2 or 3 
meters above the lowest water-mark, have been formed, in the first in- 
stance just below Tancarville, and recently on the left bank of the river 
between la Maille-raye and Candebec. This last attemx)t appears more 
likel}' to succeed than the other, doubtless on account of the greater 
tranquility of the water. 

From the commencement of the works till the 31st of December, 1875, 
the cost of the first establishment and of heavy repairs was 16,860,000 
francs. This sum includes 220,000 francs for deepening the peaty bottom 
of the passage of the Meules, which Avas accomplished by means of 
dredgi]ig. 

In order to complete the repairs and secure the embankments against 
the attacks of the river and damage by frost, a further outlay of about 
2,500,000 francs will be necessary, commencing from the 1st January, 
1876. The passage of the Meules will also require to be deepened, so 
that afc the lowest flood-tides there may be 5.30 meters of water. The 
expense on this head will reach 150,000 francs. 

Finally, a sum of 4,000,000 francs will be devoted to the following 
works, conformably to the act of the 14th December, 1875 : Eeconstruc- 
tion of the quays at Rouen; completion of the lighting of the Seine; 
straightening and clearing the defective passage of Oroisset and Bar- 
douv^ille (4 and 25 kilometers below Eouen). This latter operation will 
be effected by dredging. The total of these expenses will amount in 
round figures to 21,500,000 francs. 

In addition to the advantages derived from an increased depth of 
channel, the construction of embankments has caused the formation of 
about 8,40u hectares of alluvial land, of which 6,350 hectares constitute, 
at the present time, meadows of excellent quality. 

In proportion as these reclaimed lands become consolidated, they are 
transferred to the proprietors along the river side, conditionally upon 
X)ayment to the State of indemnities fixed at half the value of the lands 
required. The total of these collections will i^robably amount to 
5,900,000 of francs. 



392 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

LIGHTS AND BEACONS ON THE COAST OF FRANCE. 

On the 1st of January, 1876, there were 379 light-houses, not inchid- 
ing those of Algeria, and this number was classified as follows : 

Light-houses: 

Of the first order 45 

Of the second order 6 

Of the third order 31 

Of the fourth order 33 

Of the fifth order 254 

Floatiiig lights 10 

Two hundred and ninety light-houses have been constructed or re- 
newed since the commencement of 1848. Uj) to that period the estab- 
lishment of maritime beacons had not been seriousl}^ undertaken. 

A description of a few of the more important light houses will be 
found in the following pages. 

LIGHT-HOUSES. 

But one foreign uation — France — has made any attempt at an exhibit 
of this imi)ortant branch; a few other nations hare shown some photo- 
graphs, but France displays models, drawings, and pictures of most of 
her best works in this line,' from which I have selected a few typical 
ones illustrating different methods of construction. 

I have purposely omitted reference to the lenses and the subject of 
lighting in general, as Lieut. Allen Paul, U. S. N., gives this subject his 
attention in his report. 

For full information concerning European light-houses I would refer to 
Major Elliot's valuable work entitled " Eeport of a tour of inspection of 
European light-house establishments, made in 1873," by Maj. George H. 
Elliot, published at Government Printing Office, 1874, and to "Memoir 
upon the illumination and beaconage of the coasts of France, by M. 
Leonce Eeyuaud," translated by Maj. Peter 0. Hains, Corps of Engi- 
neers, and published at the Government Printing Office, 1876. 

Lighthouse of Ar-men. 

(Drawings on scales of 0.015 and 0.04 meter.) 

The island of Sein is situated on the western extremity of the depart- 
ment of le Finistere, and extends in a westerly direction by a succession 
of reefs to a distance of nearly 8 miles from the island, and lower pro- 
portionably. The tops of some are elevated above the highest tides; 
others are alternately above and below the surface of the water, while 
the greater number are always submerged. They constitute a sort of 
dam, the direction ol which is nearly perpendicular to that of the tide- 
currents, and the sea almost constantly breaks over them with extreme 
violence. 



THE ENGIXEER SECIION. 



393 




Light-House of Ar-men. 



394 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

In April, I860, the Light-House Commission demanded that the sub- 
ject should be properly investigated, in order to know if it would not be 
Ijossible to erect a light-house of the lirst order on one of the rocks not 
covered by the sea, and as near as possible to the extremity of the 
causeway. The idea was approved on the 3d June following, and the 
first surveys of the locality were confided to a commission composed of 
engineers and officers of the Kavy. In July of the same year this com- 
mission had made a careful examination of the local conditions, and had 
ascertained that the heads of three rocks emerge from the water near 
the extremity, even in strong tides. Of these rocks, which bear the 
names of Madion, Schomeour, and Ar-men, the two first are nearly 
covered, while the third rises to about 1.50 meters above the lowest ebb- 
tides. The state of the sea had not permitted them to go alongside Ar- 
men, but its dimensions appeared insufficient for the construction of a 
great light-house, and it appeared impossible to land, however favora- 
ble the w^eather might be. The commission were therefore unanimous 
in proposing as a site the rock Neurlach, which is situated 5 miles in- 
wards from the extremity of the causeway. This idea was repudiated 
by the Light-House Commission, as not tending to ameliorate the ex- 
isting state of things sufficiently for the requirements of navigation, 
and the ministry of marines was requested to command a thorough 
hydrographic exj^loration of the extremity of the causeway. 

Various circumstances retarded the execution of this work. In 1866, 
M. Ploix, engineer and hydrographer, was sent to the spot, aad if he was 
not able to gather all the information necessary, still his investigations 
enabled the Commission to decide upon a plan. M. Ploix arrived at 
the conclusion that Ar-men was the most proper site. 

^' It is a work," said he, " exceedingly difficult, almost impossible, but 
considering the paramount importance of lighting the causeway, we 
must try the impossible." 

The currents passing over the causeway of the Sein are in :^ct most 
violent ; their speed in high tides exceeds eight knots, and in the calmest 
weather they cause a strong cho^iping sea, and render the water veiy 
rough as soon as a breeze from an opposite direction meets them. 
There is no land to shelter the rock against winds from between the 
north and east-south-east round to the south, and it is only possible 
to go alongside during very gentle winds between north and east. 

To anchor a floating light at the extremity of the causeway had been 
recognized to be impossible, as much on account of the great depth of 
water as in respect of the bottom being thickly studded with rocks, 
around which the holding cable would be entangled. Neither was it 
l^ossible to entertain the idea of establishing an iron structure resting 
directly on the reef, as the construction would be too difficult. 

Taking into account the various considerations, the Light-House Com- 
mission, in its sitting on the 29th November, 1866, gave an opinion that 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 395 

a solid fouudatiou of masonry inust be established 011 the rock Ar-inen, 
and that it must be of such dimensions as would be suitable for the ulti- 
mate construction of a light-house. 

The dimensions of the rock, which was tolerably hard gneiss, were as- 
certained to be 7 or 8 meters in breadth by 12 to 15 meters in length at 
the level of ebb-tides j also that the surface was very unequal and 
divided by profound fissures and that while almost perpendicular on 
the eastern side there was a gradual slope on the western. 

The followino^ mode of construction was therefore decided upon, viz : 
To bore holes 30 centimeters in depth and 1 meter apart all over the 
site of the intended edifice, and some other holes outside this limit, in 
order to hold the ringbolts necessary for craft coming alongside and 
to fasten the shrouds. The object of the first set of holes was to receive 
wrought-iron gudgeons to fix the masonry to the rock, and to make the 
construction itself serve to bind the different parts, and fissures, and 
thus consolidate a base the precarious nature of which gave rise to some 
misgivings. 

It was proposed that in addition to these gudgeons others should be 
added, and strong iron chains introduced horizontally into the masonry, 
in i)roportion to its progress, so as to prevent any possible disjunction. 

For the work of boring the holes the services of the fishermen of the 
isle of Sein were called in requisition, since their calling familiarized them 
with all the rocks of the causeway, and they were in a position to take 
advantage of every favorable opportunity. After many difficulties, they 
accepted a contract, the Government agreeing to furnish tools and life- 
belts. 

In 1867 they w^ent vigorously to work, and hastened to avail them- 
selves of every i^ossible chance of working. Two men from each boat 
landed on the rock, and, provided with their cork belts, laj^ down upon 
itj holding on with one hand and using the jumper or hammer with the 
other, they worked with feverish activity, the waves constantly break- 
ing over them. One was carried off the rock, and the violence of the 
current bore him a long distance from the reef against which he would 
have been dashed to pieces. However, his life-belt kept him up, and a 
boat went to fetch him back to work. At the close of the season seven 
landings had been effected, and eight hours of work accomplished, during 
which fifteen holes had been bored in the highest parts of the rock. It 
was the first step towards success. In the following year greater diffi- 
culties were encountered, since it was necessary to commence on the 
point hardly above the surface of the water ; but the experience gained 
was valuable, and a higher rate of remuneration gave additional en- 
couragement to the fishermen; the season was favorable, sixteen land- 
ings were effected, eighteen hours of work accomplished, forty new holes 
bored, and they even succeeded in partially leveling and preparing the 
work for the first course of masonry. 



396 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

The construction, properly so-called, was undertaken in 1869. The 
galvanized wrought-iron gudgeons, 0.06 meter square and 1 meter in 
length, were fixed in the holes, and the masonry was commenced, with 
small undressed stone and Parker- Medina cement. In fact, a cement 
of the most rapidly hardening character was essential, for the work was 
carried on in the midst of waves breaking over the rock, and which 
sometimes wrenched from the hand of" the workman the stone he was 
about to lay. An experienced sailor, with his back against one of the 
iron stanchions, was always on the watch to give warning of such waves 
as were likely to sweep the rock, when the men would hold on, head to 
the sea, while it washed over them. On the other hand, when he an- 
nounced a probable calm, the work went on with great rapidity. All 
the workmen were supplied with life-belts, as the fishermen had been, 
as well as with spikes, to prevent slipping. The conductor also, and the 
engineer, who by his presence alway encouraged the workmen, were 
similarly furnished. 

When a landing was practicable the stones and small bags of cement 
were landed by hand, and care was taken to dress the surface of the 
masonry before commencing a new course. It is unnecessary to add that 
the cement was employed pure, and mixed with sea-water. 

At the close of the season of 1869, 25 cubic meters of masonry had 
been executed, and these were found intact the following year. 

At the present date the^ cubic contents of the masonry are 454.85 
meters, rismg to a level of 2.60 meters abov^e the highest tides. The 
success of the undertaking may therefore be looked upon as assured, 
and at this stage the work may be expected to advance more rapidly. 

Since 1871 Portland cement was substituted for Parker, the resistance 
of the former to the decomposing action of sea-water being ascertained 
to be superior to that of the latter; and the stone work at the foot of 
the building will be preserved by refilling the interstices, and perhaps 
by a continuous covering of the same material. 

According to the project recently adopted, the light will be of the 
second order, with a flashing light, and the focus will be elevated 28 
meters above the level of the highest tides. This limit riiight have been 
exceeded, so as to admit of a light of the first order, but for the insuf- 
ficiency of the base, and it was necessary above all things to insure the 
stability of the edifice. The part constituting the basement will be con- 
tinued with the diameter of 7.20 meters up to the level of high tides, 
and with that of 6.90 meters for the three following meters. The limited 
extent of the rock necessitates these small dimensions. The interior 
diameter will vary from 3 meters in the lower to 3.40 meters in the upper 
part, by means of successive offset-^, and the thickness of the wall will 
diminish from 1.70 meters level with the entrance door to 0.80 meters 
below the cornice of the capping. There will be eight stories in the 
edifice, one of which will be devoted to a sounding apparatus to indicate^ 
the position of the light-house during a fog. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



397 



The aunexed table, while reproducing some of the figures already 
giveu, shows the principal facts relating to the works executed, com- 
mencing from 1867 : 



Years. 


Number of land- 
ings. 


Number of hours 
on rock. 


Cube of ma- 
sonry executed 
per year. 


1 

m 


1 
1 


11 


1867 


7 
16 
24 

8 
12 
13 

6 
18 
23 


h. m. 
8 00 
18 00 
42 10 
18 05 
22 10 
34 20 
15 25 
60 10 
111 55 


Meters. 


Meters. 


Francs. 

8,000 

21,000 

25, 000 

26, 336 
17, 000 
40, 000 
62, 000 
71,800 
76, 000 


Francs. 


1868 








1869 


25.05 
11.55 
23.40 
54.65 
22.00 
115. 30 
203. 00 


1.04 
1.44 
1.95 
4.20 
3.67 
6.41 
8.80 

4.37 


998 


1870 - 


2,289 


1871 

1872 


721 

727 


1873 


2,818 


1874 


623 


1875 


375 






Totals ' 


127 


329 15 


454. 85 


347, 136 


745 







This work was conceived and planned in what is essential by M. L^once 
Eeynaud, director of light-house service. In the first instance, it was 
carried on under the direction of M. Planchat, eugineerin-chief, and 
afterwards under that of M. Fenoux, engineer-in-chief; by MM. loly, 
from 1867 to 1878, Cahen, from 1869 to 1874, and Mengin from 1875. 
MM. Lacroix, i)rincipal coiiducteur, and Prf besteau, couducteur, have 
been successively charged with the superintendence of the works. 

It is to be regretted, since it would only be an act of simple justice, 
that to this list cannot be added the names of those brave sailors and 
Breton workmen who, unconscious of their claims to admiration, have, 
by dint of energy and earnestness of purpose, insured the success of 
an enterprise bolder and, it might be said, more rash than any preced- 
ing undertaking of the same nature. 



Light-Jiouse of the Roches -Douvres. 

[Drawings ou scales of 0,01 and 0.04 meter.] 

The plateau of the Roches-Douvres is the most northerly of these 
innumerable reefs that render navigation so dangerous on the coasts of 
Bretagne. It is nearly equidistant between the islands of Brehat 
and Guernsey, and 27 nautical miles from the ofhng of the harbor of 
Portrieux. 

The necessity of erecting a light-house on this point had long been 
recognized, but the construction of a lofty stone tower in a part where 
the sea, owing to the great force of the tide-currents, is constantly 
rough, was likely to present -many difficulties, and consequently to in- 
volve a considerable outlay, especially as sailing vessels only were 
available for the service, and these might frequently make fruitless 
voyages, on account of being compelled to cross the currents, both in 



398 INTERNA TIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

going and returning. Steam navigation and tlie use of iron for pur- 
poses of construction appeared to set these questions at rest, and in 
the sitting of the 24th January, 1862, the Light-House Commission de- 
cided to illuminate the Eoches-Douvres by a revolving light of the first 
order. 

The rock upon which it is established is situated near the middle of 
the south side of the plateau. It rises to the level of flood- tides, and 
the stone basement of the edifice is 2.10 meters in height. The iron 
tower is 18.30 meters from the foot to the level of the upper platform, 
and 56.15 meters to the summit of the lantern. Its diameter, which is 
11.10 meters at the base for the inscribed circle, diminishes to 4 meters 
at the top. 

The focus of the lighting apparatus is 53 meters above the level of 
the highest tides. 

Cast-iron stairs occupy the center of the building ; the storerooms 
and keeper's lodgings are situated in the lower part, and are sur- 
mounted by two interior galleries into which shipwrecked persons can 
be received, and where the workmen can sleep, when exceptional cir- 
cumstances necessitate their passing some days in the light-house. 

[Jp to the present time the majority of iron light-houses have been 
constructed with plates of iron more or less thick, riveted together; but 
in the present instance it was not thought expedient to adopt this plan, 
in the first place, because it causes the stability of the edifice to de- 
pend upon a covering greatly exposed to oxidation, and on this account 
it is deficient in the requisite conditions of durability, especially if neg- 
lected ; in the second place, because the riveting and mode of con- 
struction require special workmen, and also because the scaffolding 
necessary is difficult to erect upon a rock of limited dimensions. The 
following conditions were therefore observed : 

1. To render the skeleton of the edifice entirely independent of the 
exterior covering ; to shelter it from the sea-fogs which rapidly cause 
oxidation ; to facilitate inspection and proper keeping, and to reduce 
as much as possible the extent of surface exposed to humidity. 

2. To manage the process of construction in such a way that the tower 
should be erected without scaffolding at the bottom, and without clinch- 
ing a single rivet on the place. 

Stress was also laid upon the necessity of the parts being of such di- 
mensions as to obviate any difficulties of embarkation, of stowage on 
board, and of placing in position. 

Sixteen great uprights or standards, each consisting of fifteen panels 
in the height, constitute the skeleton or frame-work of the building. 
Each panel is in simple T -irons, put together, consolidated, and riveted 
in such a manner as to insure the most perfect solidarity and resistance 
to deformation, contingent upon the strongest shocks or pressures that 
could be foreseen. These panels are bolted one upon another, and 
cross-braces, inside as well as outside, also bolted, keep the standards 




_-Zi 



Df 





11 
i j 


vp 


>/^ 


f\ 


1 /\ 


TK ■ 




[ A 



LIGHT HOUSE OF THE ROCHES-DOtVRES. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



399 



in position. Finally, on the last cross-braces and on the exterior sur- 
faces of the standards are fitted sheets of iron, constituting a covering, 
the joints of which are protected by wrought-iron plate bands fixed by 
bolts. Each standard is surmounted by a cast-iron bracket, on which 
is corbeled out the platform required for the external service of the lan- 
tern. The standards rest upon a large cast-iron foot-plate held by six 
wrought-iron bolts, and embedded in a solid mass of concrete.. 

The chambers are surrounded by a brick wall, which, for effectual 
shelter, is 0™.05 from the sheet-iron tower; they have also brick par- 
titions. A floor in concrete raises the surface to 0™.40 above the cast- 
iron foot-plate, while the ceiling is in stone work resting on small iron 
joists. 

The service chamber is at the top of the tower, and communicates 
with the lantern by a cast-iron stepladder as usual. 

The stairs of the tower are in cast iron with wrought-iron stringers. 
The outer stringer is bolted to the standards where it meets them, and 
thus contributes to the rigidity of the system. A half turn of the stairs 
corresponds exactly with the height of a panel, that is to say, 3™.20. 

The door of entrance is in oak, with bronze mountiDgs, and all the 
window frames are in rolled iron. 

Francs. 
Iron tower, properly so called, wrought iron and castings, 317,328 kilo- 
grams -. 223,986.76 

Joiner and locksmitli work, bronze handrail, and painting 33, 788. 57 

Lantern, lighting apparatus, fog-bell 85, 576. 21 

Packing and carriage 19, 819. 81 

Locks, apparatus for erection, various fittings 17, 086. 02 

Foundation work and construction 225, 100. 00 

Total......... 605,357.37 

The engineers for the iron tower were MM. L^once Eeynaud, inspect- 
or-general ^' des Fonts et Ghaussees," director of the light-house service, 
and iSmile Allard, engineer-inchief "des Fonts et Ohaussees''; con- 
structor, M. Eigolet, Of Faris. The engineers for the foundation works 
and the construction on the rock were MM. Dujardin and Felaud, en- 
gineers-in-chief; de la Tribonniere, resident engineer; Bertin, "conduct- 
eur des Fonts et Ghauss^es," and La Bozec, " employ^ des Fonts et 
Ghaussees." 

Light-house of Saint- Fierre de Roy an. 

(Drawings on a scale of 0'". 04.) 

The embouchure of the Gironde presents two distinct passages, tend- 
ing eastward in directions nearly at right angles to each other. The 
northern passage is wide and deep, and most used by vessels; the other, 
the southern passage, though less practicable for navigation, offers 
great advantages, even for ships of large tonnage, when vessels enter 
it with the wind in the south and at the turn of the flood tide. 



400 



ITERXATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



'^P 







Light-house ot Saint-Pieire de Rovan, 



_- V>;^f r;__ Jtsss.;^ 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. if^'^ ^\ 4OI 

The two light houses of Saint-Pierre de Eoyan hdcI a^^X^fiiflrf^^istaDt 
from each other 2 kilometers, are intended to light the ^s^^e', ^nd 
to replace advantageously, on the right bank of the river ,nj»^0<g]f^'4;^e 
old beacons, which were only useful during daylight. In orde^h^.ii^^ 
confusion might occur in these arrangements for the safe navigat^nv^f ^ 
the embouchure, which was already provided with a great numbeiPi)^^ 
lights, the two light-houses in question only illuminate an angular aAd ^ 
limited space. The apparatus is placed in the upper chambers of the 
edifices, in front of windows opening in the direction of this passage, 
and consists of siiherical reflectors which throw back the luminous raj's 
from the focus upon lenses a echelons, of which the parallel optical axes 
are situated in the vertical plane of the line of direction required. 

There is only oue apparatus in the light-house du Chay, while there 
are two in that of Saint-Pierre, on account of the greater distance of the 
tower J all these lights are red and fixed. 

The edifices consist of stone towers, of a rectangular form, and the 
interior arrangements are the same. Tlie most important is that of 
Saint-Pierre. 

The plan of this building is that of a perfect square, the measurement 
of which is 5™ throughout the whole height of tower. This edifice is 
intended to serve as a landmark during the day, and to render it more 
clearlj^ visible, and obviate at the same time the possibility of con- 
founding it with the steeples of the town of Eoyan, the upper part has 
been enlarged by means of wing walls, corbeled out 1™.50 on each 
side. In addition to this, it is covered with broad horizontal bands, al- 
ternately red and white. The signal on the top of the tower stands out 
against the sky, and is painted entirely red. This light was kindled on 
the loth June, 1873. 

The plans were drawn up by M. Eeynaud, inspector-general, by M. 
Lasne, resident engineer, under the direction of M. Marchegay, engineer- 
in-chief. The works were conducted by M. Sanvoin, '• conducteur des 
Ponts et Chaussees." 

lAght-liouse of la Falmyre. 

(DiaTvings on scales of 0™.02, 0™.04, bdcI 0°\20.) 

Tower and dependencies. — The light-house of la Palmyre is situated in 
the middle of the downs on the right bank of the Gironde, and 5 miles 
inland from the point of la Coubre. Concurrently with the light-house 
established on this point, it is intended to point out the first line of di- 
rection at the entrance of the northern passage of the embouchure of 
the river, also to enable vessels to avoid the bank of la Mauvaise, of 
which the slow and steady progress north-northeast has led to an al- 
teration in the line of beacons formerly placed in this passage, and 
which has become dangerous. 

It was not considered expedient for various reasons to erect a build- 
26 CEN 



402 



INTERXATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



ing of stone iu this place. It was therefore decided to erect an iron 
to^yer, after a new system invented by M. Lecointre, engineer de la 
marine and of the Mediterranean Company of Forges and Workshops. 




Liglit-house of la Palmj-ie. Section and elevation. 

The shaft of the tower consists of nine cylindrical tubes, each 2™. 80 
in height, fitted one upon the other, and forming a staircase 2™ in the 
interior diameter. 



THE EXG INKER SECTIOX. 403 

The nine tubes form a pillar 25»\20 in height, having a solidarity 
with the foundation, which consists of concrete 3"^ in thickness, run 
into the sand of the down on which the lighthouse stands. The tube 
is connected with the foundation, both at the top and at the base. 
For this purpose, flanged cast-iron shields or plates, imbedded in the 
lower part of the concrete, serve as points of holding for bolts, which 
traverse the whole thickness of the foundation. The heads of these bolts 
are fixed in the plates on the one part, at the base of the first lower 
tube, by riveting, and held on the other part by a double system of 
screw nuts. This plan of connecting the base of the tower with its foun- 
dation is also employed to attach the two upper tubes of the column to 
the same solid mass. With this view, two tubular irou struts are riveted 
by means of elliptic angle-irons to the eighth and ninth tubes, and are 
fixed to the plates in the same manner as those that sustain the column. 

The plane of the mass of concrete is in the form of an equilateral Y, of 
which each branch is 4"^ in breadth, and is terminated by a semi- 
circle, having its center at 5™ Irom the axis of the tower. The cen- 
tral pillar is maintained in position by six bolts 0"\07 in diameter and 
3°^.67 in length, and rests upon a vertical monolith socle 0'".40 in height. 
The axis of each of the three struts meets the surface of the concrete in 
t he center of the circumference which terminates each branch of the 
Y. These struts are fixed at their base to 4- foot plates, by means of 
a similar number of bolts, 0*^'^\07 in diameter and 3^.67 in length, held 
in the same manner as those of the center by cast-iron plates. These 
4-foot plates rest on a cylindrical socle, forming one with the solid 
concrete, and of which the surface is perpendicular to the direction ot 
the strut. The foundation bolts are respectively parallel to the struts 
which they fasten. The cylindrical lengths of the struts and of the 
newel of the stairs are jointed to each other, so that the upper extremity 
of each division is covered for about ()'". 10 of its length by the lower 
portion of the part surmounting it, and these junctions are secured by 
rivets. 

The cost amounted to the sum of 134,268 francs 55 centimes, divided 
as follows: 

Francs. 

Road of access 27, 752. 38 

Foundations, keeper's house, and out-buildings 29, 935. 37 

Iron tower 76,580.80 

Total 134,268.55 

TURRET AND CANDELABRUM FOR PORT LIGHTS. 

(Two models on a scale of iVO 

THE TURRET. 

The arrangements of this turret are such as to realize a mode of con- 
struction at once simple and economical, and offering at the same time 
great facilities for transport and erection. It rests upon a cast-iron 



404 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

plate in a simple piece, and is attached by five bolts either to the ma- 
sonry or to the frame work of a jetty. It consists of a riveted sheet-iron 
cylinder, with striated sheet-iron stairs inside, supi3orted by a cast-iron 
pillar or newel, and riveted to the cylinder by means of angle-irons. 
The cylinder and stairs form one, and are taken to pieces. The length 
does not exceed the limit specified in the railway tariffs of carriage, and 
is easy to manage and raise by means of a winch. Oast-iron flanges 
and brackets, bolted to the cylinder, support an open-work cast-iron 
gallery, with a wrought-iron balustrade, and a cylindrical sheet-iron 
cylinder, which carries the lantern. These complete the turret, properly 
so called. 

The lantern is in bronze, it has cylindrical glasses, and is surmounted 
by a copper cupola. At the base of the candelabrum, upon which is 
placed the apparatus for lighting, a revolving cast-iron landing-place 
enables the keeper to clean the glasses without obstructing the passage 
of the stairs. 

The cylinders being placed in position by means of a winch, the other 
parts, which are comparatively light, are easily raised by a tackle sus- 
pended from a beam projecting from the top, and firmly attached to it 
by ropes. The weight of the turret proper, the foundation plate and 
upper part, is about 6,500 kilograms. The cost of the construction, in- 
cluding the lantern, glasses, and candelabrum supporting the apparatus 
for lighting, is 9,200 francs in Paris. 

THE CANDELABRUM. 

The candelabrum enables a port light to be placed at the extremity 
of a very narrow jetty, where it can be hoisted to a height of 8"^ during 
the night, and locked u{) in a sheet-iron cabin during the day, till the 
moment of lighting. This cabin bears two uprights in sheet iron, at the 
top of which is fixed a pulley mounted in a cast-iron block. 

Two half-round wrought-iron guide rods are held at the top by the 
side of the uprights by two iron arms, and at the bottom by a table in 
sheet and wrought iron, which projects outside the cabin. The appa- 
ratus is rolled onto this • outer table when it is necessary to hoist it, 
and is provided with ears, which run on the iron guides during its as- 
cent. 

The front of the cabin, facing the service table and the guides is 
pierced with an aperture sufi&ciently large to admit the lantern, and 
is closed by two shutters opening inwards. Above this aperture, and 
inside the cabin, is the little cast-iron winch, with brake, round which 
winds the chain for hoisting. 

An interior table receives the apparatus when not in use, and is ter- 
minated by a cast-iron turning table or plateau intended to facilitate 
cleaning. The opposite side of the cabin is pierced by an aperature, 
with a door fastening with lock and key. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 405 

The interior is lighted by two lateral windows, and by a round hole 
pierced in the roof, and glazed. This allows the ascent of the lantern 
to be watched, and also to be assured that it is lighted. 

The weight of the cabin is about 1,000 kilograms, and the price, all 
accessories included, 1,680 francs in Paris. 

These two little constructions have been adopted by the light-house 
board of direction. They were invented and are manufactured by M. 
L. Sautter, Lemonnier & Co. 

DAM AND SIPHOX WEIR OY THE RESERVOIR METTERSHEIM. 

CAXAL OF THE COAL MINES OF THE SARRE. 

The reservoir of Mittershiem supplies part of the canal of the Sarre 
coal mines, and is formed by a barrage in the valley of I^aubach, where 
it constitutes a reserve of water baving a surface of 261 hectares, and 
a maximum depth of 8'".10 above the bottom sluice. Its total ca- 
pacity is 7,000,000 cubic meters, and of this quantity, 5,800,000 (equal 
to a volume of water 3"\46) can be appropriated to the supply of 
the canal. Local circumstances require that the regulation level of 
the reserve should not be appreciably exceeded, and to insure the per- 
fect working of the weir, it has been necessary to reduce this limit to 
0'".05. 

D«m.— The dam is 332™.50 in total length, 8™.82 in depth from the 
capping to the bottom plug or sluice, 6'" in breadth at the top, and 
attains a maximum breadth of 36"\80 at the base, in the bottom of the 
valley. 

Siphon weir. — The regulating apparatus consists of two large cast-iron 
siphons, 0'".70 in interior diameter and 0'".022 in thickness, communi- 
cating by their ascending branch with the reservoir at 3'".50 below the 
reserve, and by their descending branch, with a discharge canal in 
which their orifice is kept under water by means of a small barrage. 
A small tube, 0"\15 in diameter is joined to each siphon and follows 
it throughout the whole of the bend. The lower orifice of this tube 
discharges into the same canal in which the end is also submerged, 
while the upper orifice opens into the reservoir exactly on a level with 
the reserve. This tube serves as a fetching tube [amorceur) for the 
siphon, and both are in permanent communication by means of a bent 
pipe, which connects their most elevated points. The head of the fetch- 
ing tube is in cast iron, and is enlarged in the shape of a bell, expand- 
ing horizontally to an arc of a circle with a radius of 0"\80. The two 
sides or lips (Uvres) of this head are profiled in such a manner that 
the lower lip presents to the water a horizontal line of overfall placed 
exactly at the normal level of the reserve. The upper lip is terminated 
by a rounded surface, tangent in its whole development to a horizontal 
plane passing at 0'".005 above the lower lip. From these arrange- 
ments it results that the orifice of entrance is only submerged when 



4o6 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, y^-i^. 




THE EXGIXEER SECTIOX. 407 

the level of the rises to more than 0"\005 above the regulation reserve. 
The fetching {amorcement) is then effected in the following manner: 

As soon as the water rises above the regulation reserve, it flows over 
the lower lip of the fetching tube; if this elevation attains 0"'.005 the 
entrance orifice of the fetching tube is submerged, and from that time 
the air contained in the fetching tube, in the siphon, and in the upper 
tube ceases to be in communication with the atmosphere. Then the 
water, in overflowing, draws the air from the small tubes and exhausts 
that of the siphon, and there ensues a diminution of pressure in the 
interior of the apparatus, the water ascends into the siphon, the fetch- 
ing takes place, and finally the siphon works with increasing speed and 
discharge. 

But another phenomenon prevents the pressure from indefinitely di- 
minishing, and the delivery from indefinitely augmenting. The increas- 
ing velocity of the water entering the fetching tube creates, near its head, 
a partial depression in the plane of the fluid ; this depression deepens 
in proportion to the augmentation of speed, and at last reaches and un- 
covers the upi)er lip of the orifice, thereby causing the admission of a 
certain quantity of air into the apparatus, a consequent increase of in- 
terior pressure, and a diminution of speed. The same facts being suc- 
cessivel}' produced, there results from these two opposing tendencies a 
series of oscillations corresponding to the shutting and liberating the 
upper lip of the fetching tube. This state of agitation soon ceases, and 
a steady movement is established, during which there is a simultaneous 
issue of water and air. 

When the rising of the water ceases the level of the reservoir lowers, 
and the same phenomena are produced in an inverse direction; the 
siphon action stops, and the flow is arrested when the plane of the water 
returns it to its normal height. 

A few millimeters of elevation in the plane of the water above the 
fetching tube suffice to cause a marked increase of speed. The air 
ceases to enter and the water escapes from the filled tube before this 
elevation has attained the permissible limit, 0™.05. The discharge is 
then 0™.60 per second, a quantity greater than th.*. maximum delivery 
of the risings. 

In order to exercise complete control over the apparatus, the head of 
the fetching tube has been disposed in such a manner that it can be 
raised or lowered in a single piece, by the aid of a regulating screw, the 
impermeabilit}' of the communications being assured by free dilata- 
tion joints. In addition, a small vertical iron valve gate has been placed 
in the head of the fetching tube, and it can move round a vertical axis, 
without ceasing to fit closely to the interior of the two lips, which allows 
the entrance aperture and consequently the discharge to be varied. The 
regulating is effected once for all, and the apparatus afterwards works 
automatically and requires no supervision. 



408 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

The apparatus is double, and consists of two siphons, each of which 
is furnished with its own fetching tube, with tube of communication. 

Thus each siphon forms a complete system, capable of working by it- 
self while the other may require to be examined, repaired, or regulated. 

The idea of employing fixed siphons as weirs for the regulation of a 
reserve was proposed by M. Girard and applied to the Southern Canal ; 
but large siphons have been employed there, which required consider- 
able variations in the level of the reserve, to put them in motion or to 
stop them. The peculiar conditions existing at Mettersheim and the 
very restrained limit permissible, 0'".05, led M. Hirsch, engineer '' des 
Fonts et Chaussees," to invent the special system of fetching tubes, 
which has completely fulfilled the purpose for which it was intended. 

Water was let into the reservoir in December, 1866, and the siphons 
were put in action, for the first time, on the 12th January following. 

SAINT LOUTiS CANAL. 
IMPROVEMENT OF THE EMBOUCHURES OF THE RHONE, 

(Drawings.) 

Numerous attempts have been made to lower the bar of the Ehone, 
where this river discharges its waters into the Mediterranean, but 
hitherto they have resulted in failure. It was therefore decided to open 
a direct communication between the Gulf of Foz and the deep part of 
the river, above the bar, by means of a canal designated the " Saint 
Louis Canal." 

This canal begins on the left bank of the Rhone, at the commence- 
ment of the dike constructed in 1856, for the enbankment of the Bras 
de FEst (Eastern Arm), at a distance of 600 meters below the Tour 
Saint Louis, and taking a straight line from west to east, it terminates 
in the Gulf of Foz, opposite the port of Bouc. At the Rhone end it 
is closed by a lock, while at the sea it discharges into a port formed by 
two jetties. On the canal side of the lock a basin has been excavated 
to enable vessels to turn round, in order to pass from the lock into the 
canal, and vice versa. 

The Saint Louis Canal having been established as a substitute for 
the natural embouchure of the Rhone, it was necessary to create a 
depth of water exceeding that of the river itself below the port of 
Aries. Between Aries and Saint Louis the depth of water is scarcely 
2 meters, and even with the improvements now being made it does not 
appear probable that more than 4 meters will ever be obtained, in con- 
sequence of the reefs of hard pudding-stone encountered at certain 
points in the b.ed of the river. A depth of 4 meters was therefore con- 
sidered sufficient for the mouth of the canal. But the idea presented 
itself that, the entrance of the Rhone once rendered practicable, the 
river traffic would immediately take such a development that it would 



THE EXGfXEER SEC7I0A. 



409 















Hi 







,1' '.1, J/' ? I 

"' 0'' ,' ' 111 1--" ;-;."-"■_ 









4IO INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

be absolutely necessary to secure the possibility of putting it intocom- 
inunicatiori with the maritime navigation. For this reason, the Gov- 
ernment decided to giv^e a depth of 5 meters to the Saint Louis Canal. 
For a maritime channel of such dimensions, it was essential to create 
a port on the Ehone capable of receiving vessels coming from the sea 
by the canal. This port was formed at Saint Louis itself; the basin 
was enlarged sufficiently to admit of the necessary' maneuvers of ves- 
sels ; quays were built, and at the present moment others are in conrse 
of construction on the Rhone, just above the outlet of the canal. 

The canal ijroperly so called is 3,330 meters in length from its en- 
trance into the basin at one end to the sea-shore at the other. It is 6 
meters in deptb below the level of low tides. The width at the bottom 
is 30 meters, and at the level of low tides 63 meters. 

On each side of the canal a towing path has been formed, 12 meters 
in breadth, with a level of 2 meters above the water. 

Along the whole length of the towing paths the earth excavated from 
the canal was pnt in depots or spoil-banks, and these have been kept 
2^".50 above water level in such a manner as to be above the highest 
level of the waters of the Rhone, and to protect the canal iu case of in- 
undation. The basin is 400 meters in length by 300 in width. 

Quay walls have been built on three sides, and the length finished up 
to the present time is 850 meters. This length will attain 1,100 meters 
when the walls in conrse of construction are terminated on the western, 
northern, and eastern sides. The capping of the quays is established 
2"^.50 above water level, and the earth platforms behind are made flush 
to the same height. 

The works of the canal and basin were execnted dry, by the aid of 
two coffer-dams — one at the sea end, the other in the excavations for the 
lock. A third coffer-dam was formed about half way between the two, in 
order to provide against the contingency of either of the end dams 
giving way. They were made partly with the natural soil and partly 
with the clayey ground taken from the cuttings. 

The draining was accomplished by means of rotary pumps (oyTeut and 
Dumont), worked by a portable engine. There was a pumping shaft 
for each of the divisions into which the canal and basin were separated 
by the center coffer-dam, in which last auxiliary pumping machinery 
was established. Each shaft was furnished with two rotary pumps, 
and two portable engines of 8 to 10 horse-power. 

The port is formed by two jetties, of which the southern one is paral- 
lel to the axis of the canal at a distance of 48°^.25 from the axis ; it ad- 
vances as far as the natural bottom of 6"\50, and is 1,746'".20 in length. 
The other commences 1,350 meters to the north of the canal; it has 
only advanced as far as the natural bottom of 3"\25 and is at present 
but 500 meters in length. Being perpendicular to the direction of the 
• bank, it tends towards the wing wall of the northern jetty in such a 
manner that if the two jetties should be carried out on a straight line 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 4 I I 

to a depth of 7^.5, there woukl remain a passage 200 meters in width 
between the wing walls. 

The jetties are constructed exclusively of rough' stone, or the natu- 
ral rock. 

The northern jetty is only r".25 above the level of low tides, and is 
4™ broad at the top. It is buil*"- of stones of an average weight of 50 
kilograms, and the talus are faced with stones of 300 kilograms. 

The southern jetty is elevated 2™.50 above the water level. It has' 
0^.20 more convexity, and its breadth at the top is 2™. It is formed of 
stone of 50 kilograms, average weight. The facing of the northern 
talus is of stones of 300 kilograms, and that of the southern side of 
blocks weighing at least 500 kilograms. For the wing wall, termin- 
ating the southern jetty, and which is about 20°^ in diameter at the 
top, the facing is composed of blocks of 1,200 kilograms in weight. 

Above the level of low tides the rough stone work that forms 
the facing has been carefully laid by hand, and tightened by stone 
splinters in form of wedges. At the level of the water, on each side 
of the southern jetty, a course of large stones and blocks has been 
laid to prevent the slipping of the lower part of the talus, and the 
facings are thus kept in repair from the top of the jetty. 

The inclination of the talus is 2 of base for 1 of height. 

The works of the canal, commenced in 1864, were only terminated 
at the end of 1873. 

The locks will give passage to vessels requiring to enter the Rhone 
from the sea, and al^o to boats coming from the Ehone to the canal. The 
dimensions have been calculated as follows : 

Meters. 

Width between side walls 22.00 

Depth of water in center at low tide 7. 50 

Working length o f chamber 160. 00 

Total length of work : 184. 50 

Depth of water on sill 7. 50 

Depth of water in the canal 6. 00 

The lock is inclined down stream from the river on an angle of 14^ 
2' 10". It is provided with two pairs of gates, and the versed sine of 
the sills is one- sixth of the breadth of the lock. 

The eastern quay wall of the channel entering the Ehone is formed, 
like those of the basin, directly on the soil. The western quay w^all, the 
wing wall of the lock, and the quay of the Ehone are constructed of 
solid masses of beton run into the iuclosure. 

The lock and its retaining walls, and the eastern quay w^all of the 
channel, were built entirely dry, by means of a cotter- dam formed by 
the natural ground left intact along the Ehone, with a breadth of a few 
meters. A similar dam separated the excavations of the lock from 
those of the basin^iso that in case of accident or rupture of the Ehone 
coffer-dam the basin would be protected from the water. 



412 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



The cost of the canal and port of Saint Lonis, includino- the supple- 
mentary works, will amount to 15,400,000 francs, divided as follows : 

♦ Francs. 

1. Canal, basin, and port , 10, 053, 000. 00 

2. Lock : 3,741,649.74 

174,496.74 

23,900.00 

25,742.98 

684,206.13 

697,004.41 



3. Lock-gates 

4. Beacon of soiitli jetty 

5. Embankment of Eysselle . 

6. Quays on the Rhone 

7. General expenses (about) 



Total 



15, 400, 000. 00 



LOCK GATES OF SAINT NAZAIEE (LOIRE INFER lEURE). 
(Model and drawing.) 



\ 














l^.: 


..■.•• . ..•.::■.:•■.■.::::::; 


„ ;■..■., „! 


'■; 


i 


j 
j 


ri.i! 


1 

1 
1. , , 


i 


1 
1 




1 


1 




1' j 

= : 
^1- i 






• 1 


■V 


: ! ■• 

\ M: 




». i 






1 






1 






t 






' \ 










"1 


. .' 


— [*- 






': . 










: . 


1 




: • 


i 




i' " 




' 


1 r • L 



Lock-gates of Saint Xazaire.— Elevation. 

The port of Saint Nazaire has two locks 25 meters in width. The first 
puts the basin into communication with the roadstead, and is furnished 
with two i^airs of wooden gates ; the second will subsequently connect 
the basin of Saint Nazaire with that of Penhouet, now in course of con- 
struction, and has one pair of iron gates. This lock is temporarily used 
as a graving dock. The maximum pressure supported by the two pairs 
of wooden gates is 6 meters, which corresponds to the difference between 
flood and ebb of equinoctial spring tides. 

At strong tides, when the graving dock is dry, the iron gates have to 
support a pressure of 10 meters of water. This difference necessitated 
giving them great power of resistance. As there is no appreciable dif- 
ference between the dimensions of these gates in respect to height and 
breadth, a comparison between the two systems may possess some in- 
terest. 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 413 

§ I. — Cross-gates. 

Frincipal dimensions. — The lock of the port of Saint Nazaire has an 
opening of 25 meters, and each of the leaves is 15°\96 in total breadth, 
and 10 meters in height. The thickness at the principal post is 
(>".G0, and at the middle I'^.GO. The tail face is flat, and the head 
face is curved to an arc of a circle concentric to one passing through 
the interior angle of the chief posts and the extremity of the miter sill. 

The real novelty presented by the gates of Saint Nazaire is the ab- 
sence of heel and miter posts. Special and expensive woods are there- 
fore no longer necessary for the construction of gates having great 
width of opening and a considerable depth of water; neither is there 
reason to fear the dislocation which causes the destruction of all gates. 
Woed of a resinous nature and of ordinary dimensions is all that is re- 
quired. 

The idea of vertical bonds, obtained by means of interior keys or ties 
to the leaves, appears also excellent, but it had been previously applied 
to gates having an opening of 16^.50. The gates constructed in 1856 
^ ere made entirely of Prussian pine, while those of 1858 were in pitch 
pine. Since their erection they have worked without accident or the 
least dislocation. 

§ IJ.— Iron gates of the locJc of Fenliouet {temporarily utilized as a graving 

doek). 

Principal dimensions. — These gates have the same form and principal 
dimensions as the wooden gates previously described, almost the only 
difference being that their height is 10°^.25 instead of 10™. 

Composition of gates. — Each leaf consists of twelve cross-pieces, three 
vertical girders forming uprights, and two other vertical girders at the 
extremities constituting heel post and miter post. 

Ballast. — Each leaf weighs 140 tons in the air, and as it would float 
in the water, before being completely submerged, ballast is requisite, 
and for this purpose it is divided into two water-tight comi)artraents by 
the fourth cross-i^iece, counting from the top. 

The upper compartment serves as a receptacle for ballast, which is 
furnished by the water in which the gate is immersed. The water has 
free entrance and egress by the apertures in the up stream and down- 
stream skin, so that the ballast is self-moving, and is proportioned in 
quantity and weight to the level of the water in the basin. The aper- 
tures are, however, fitted with valves, capable of being opened and shut 
at discretion from the foot-bridge, but, as a matter of fact, these valves 
alwaysremain open. The lower compartment acts as a float, and remains 
constantly free from water. Water-tight tubes opening on the foot- 
bridge, and provided with fixed ladders in wrought iron, give access at 
all times to the upper compartment. 

By means of the spontaneous action of the ballast, with a variation 



414 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

of water level in the basin attaining to l^'.SO and in exceptional cir- 
cumstances 1'".45 according to the tides, the actual weight of the gate 
with its ballast is maintained at between 10 and 12 tons. * 

Movable friction rollers. — Each gate has nevertheless been furnished 
with two rollers, which travel on circular iron ways let into the down- 
stream flooring. Tliese rollers can be taken up if necessary. They are 
set in a movable frame inside the gate, reaching above the second cross- 
piece, reckoning from the top. On this cross-piece is fixed a jack-screw, 
by means of which the frame and roller can be taken up at the same 
time. 

To prevent the entrance of the water, the vertical sujiports of the 
frame pass through the lower and fourth cross-piece by the medium of 
a stuffing-box, and for greater security each frame is inclosed in a per- 
fectly water-tight shaft. For the rest, the tubes that pass through the 
ballast-chest are amply sufficient to give access to every part of the 
float, if it were required to isolate them definitely. 

Effects of oxidation. — The injurious effects of oxidation have been 
provided against, and upon this head it may be remarked that the 
gates can be frequently painted in the whole of the interior and on the 
plane surface. And, in addition to this circumstance, experience has 
shown at Saint Nazaire that the iron submerged in the basin is rapidly 
covered with a compact layer of shell-fish with calcareous coverings, 
named cravants. This casing has nearly the same preservative effect 
as a coat of paint. 

SUMMARY COMPARISON BETWEEN THE TWO SYSTEMS. 

Ill the course of this notice it has been remarked that, while the 
wooden gates constructed in 1858 were required to suj^port a maximum 
pressure of 6"^ of water, the iron gates, owing to circumstances, were 
subjected to a pressure of 10^, and the results of tbis test have been 
satisfactory. 

Th9 cost i)rice of each of the wooden leaves of the gates was 1 10,000 
francs. The leaf of the same dimensions in iron cost 123,000 francs. 
This cannot be considered a very significant difference, regard being- 
had to the constantly increasing i)rice of timber of large dimensions. 

If, in default of direct observations, the relative durability of vessels 
of iron and wood be taken into consideration, it may be inferred that, 
for sea-gates, as a question of economy, the preference must be awarded 
to iron rather than to wood, as the material of construction. 

LOCK OF THE PORT OF DUNKEKQUE. 

(Model iu stone, wood, iron, and bronze, reprosenting the lock-gates and swing- 
bridge. ) 

Scale 0^.04 (one twenty-fifth). 

This lock, 21™ in breadth, was not provided with a chamber, for the 
reason that it has to give passage to ships of the largest tonnage that 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



415 



the capabilities of the port will permit; ships of which the draught al- 
lows them to enter ooly at high water. The lock is closed by a pair of 
ebb-gates abutted by portes-vaJets. Each leaf is provided witli three 




Lock-gates of the port of Duukerque.— Plan. 



wooden sluices, and worked by a rack and pinion-jack. The ebb-gates 
are worked by means of chains fastened to the faces of the miter-posts, 
and geared to winches on the respective banks. Small jack-screws, 




Lock-gates of the port of Dunkerque.— Perspective view. 



fixed to the return faces of the gate recesses, hold the miter-posts open, 
and prevent their displacement by the movement of the waves. The 
portes-valets are constructed on the same principle as ebb-gates. 

The works of the lock were executed from 1856 to 1860. The total 
cost, without the swing-bridge, but including 160"^ of quays to the ap- 



41 6 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

proaches, amounted to the sum of 1,331,214 francs 39 centimes, thus 
divided : 

Fi-ancs. 

Lock and walls of quay . . 1, 257, 623. 54 

Gates 67,316.40 

"Working machinery 6, 274. 35 

The works were planned and executed by MM. Cuel and Decharme, en- 
gineers-in-chief, and Plocq, resident engineer, " des Fonts et Ohauss^es." 

DETAILED GEOLOGICAL MAP QF FRANCE. 

EXECUTED ON THE TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP OF THE STAFF, BY THE GEOLOGICAL MAP 

SERVICE. 

The geological map service of France was instituted by a decree of 
October 1, 1868. with a view to the publication of a detailed geological 
representation of the country, upon the staff map on the -go-o o- 

For nearly two-thirds of the territory, the elements of this publica- 
tion were already in existence, in the shape of departmental maps ex- 
ecuted under the auspices of the general councils, at different periods 
since the year 1835. But these maps, executed and published on dif 
ferent scales and without any common plan, could neither be brought 
together for purposes of comparison, nor with the object of constituting 
one complete work. In addition to this, few of them showed any ac- 
quaintance with the recent progress of a science which during the last 
few years has received the most valuable accessions. 

In 1808, the persoimel of the service was placed under the superin- 
tendence of M. Elie de Beaumont, whose first efforts were directed to 
the studj^ of the Parisian district, and it was soon ascertained that, 
whatever care might have been exercised in the previous surveys of 
this district, it was necessary to recommence in almost every part the 
detailed exploration of the ground. 

For the documents composing a work of this magnitude, it was nec- 
essary to establish a methodical and uniform system of arrangement, 
capable of adequately meeting all the scientific and technical require- 
ments that geology is called upon to satisfy ; and this obligation, added 
to the necessity, before mentioned, of a new and more complete explora- 
tion, prevented the publication from being accomplished with the prompt- 
itude calculated upon at the commencement of the undertaking. In 
1873, the work was not sufficiently advanced to allow of sending to the 
Universal Exhibition at Vienna more than twelve sheets, forming a 
rectangle, of which Paris occupied nearly the center, with their annexes, 
explanatory notices, longitudinal and vertical sections, photographic 
perspectives, &c. It should also be borne in mind that at this period 
there were many obstacles to be encountered. The hmited number of 
the members of the service, all of whom had other special functions to 
perform, in addition to their geological duties ; financial necessities, 



THE EXG INKER SECTION. 4 I 7 

defective organization of the service — all these circumstances concurred 
in retarding the progress of the work. 

In 1874, a new arrangement of the service was necessitated by the 
death of the learned and illustrious man at the head of the work. 
The direction was confided to M. Jacquet, inspector-general of mines, 
and in the course of 1875, on the proposition of M. Oaillaux, min- 
ister of public works, the National Assembly, justly impressed with 
the importance of the undertaking, did not hesitate to renew a grant 
by the aid of which the publication of from twelve to sixteen sheets 
per year may be exi)ected, consequent upon the employment of an addi- 
tional number of assistants, so that the completion of the work may 
be looked forward to in a period of from sixteen to twenty years. 

The publication has hitherto bsen carried on at the National Print- 
ing Office. 

DOCUMENTS EXHIBITED. 

These comprise : 

1. A central ijanel formed by the union of twelve sheets representing 
the extreme north of France, viz: No. 3 (Boulogne), 4 (Saint Omer), 5 
(Lille), 6 (Montreuil), 7 (Arras), 3 (Douai), 11 (Abbeville), 12 (Amiens), . 
13 (Cambrai), 20 (Neufchatel), 21 (Montdidier), 22 (Laon). 

2. Two side panels with different specimens of sheets. The left-side 
panel contains, beside the title sheet and introduction, a longitudinal 
section carried across the Beauvois sheet, in a transverse direction to 
the axis of the district of Bray. Below is a copy of the Arras sheet, with 
the curves of the level of the ancient surface. The right-side panel 
comprises a trial sheet on the xoo"oo? relating to the outskirts of Paris, 
two sheets of vertical sections, one for Paris, the other for the environs 
of Beauvais, and two photographs of quarries, reproduced by the pho- 
toglyptic method, and in which the perspective has been arranged in 
accordance with the corresj)onding geological scale, by a geometrical 
diagram. 

3. A longitudinal section on the g 0000 and yoooo carried from north 
to south, across the Paris sheet, is figured below the three panels. 

4. A special panel, comprising the Calais sheet, shows the results 
of the survey undertaken by two engineers of the geological service, 
MM. Potier and de Lapparent, with a view to the construction of the 
submarine tunnel between France and England. The croppings up 
of a strata of gault, glauconite chalk, and marly chalk, under the straits 
between Calais and Dover, are represented as shown by the boring 
operations. The existence of two dips has been remarked in the bear, 
ing of these croppings ; one on the French and the other on the En- 
glish side, between which no geological irregularity of importance is 
anticipated. 

5. Maj) on the joioo of the southwestern district of the Morvan, en 
virons of Saint-Honore-les-Bains. 

6 and 7. Enlarged photographs of eruptive rocks cut in thin plates. 

27 CEN 



41 8 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

Tableau No. 6 reproduces the granites, gTauulites, and pegmatites col- 
lected in France and in tlie Colorado. It indicates the analogy exist- 
ing between the two granitic and granulitic series in Europe and America. 
Tableau No. 7 comprises porphyritic types principally collected in the 
Morvan. 

MARITIME CANAL OF SUEZ. 

The maritime canal of Suez was rejjresented in the exhibition by 
the following maps, plans, photographs, &c. A large wall map in colored 
topography gives the Isthmus of Suez and the canal on a scale of 
zWro 0- Large wall maps show the geological section and the i^rofile 
of the work and give plans of Lake Timsah and the Harbor of Suez. 

Ten photographs of large size show the harbor of Port Said; the 
manufacture of concrete blocks used in its construction ; dredge-boats; 
locks of the Sweet Water Canal; the canal used in filling Lake Timsah; 
work-shops, and the peculiar dredge-boat used on the work, the"eleva- 
teurs," and the ^'drague a long couloir." 

Ducher et Cie, publishers, Paris, exhibited a superb work on the 
Suez Canal, giving finely executed plates of all the machines, w^ork- 
shops, and details of construction. About a third of the proposed pub- 
lication was shown. The remainder is to be issued in parts. 

The maritime canal of Suez joining the Mediterranean and Eed Sea 
is about 99 miles in length from Port Said on the former to Suez on the 
latter sea. It is the largest ship-canal in the w^orld, and the most im- 
portant and expensive engineering feat of similar nature executed in 
modern times. 

The line passes nearly north and south. Beginning at Port Said, the 
first great work was the construction of an entire harbor on the sandy 
shore, at a site, which was but an immense salt marsh covered to the 
depth of a few inches with the mingled waters of the Mediterranean and 
the Pelusiac branch of the Mle. The entire harbor was the work of the 
dredge-boats, and the entire site of the town has been constructed by 
using the material thus excavated. Two jetties form the harbor. The 
western one, 2,726 yards in length, extends at right-angles from the 
shore, the eastern one, 1,962 yards, converges to within 450 yards of the 
other, and the two inclose an area of 550 acres. 

The piers are made of concrete blocks formed from the sand dredged 
from the harbov, mixed with hydraulic lime of Thiel in the proportion 
of 2 to 1. The blocks were 10.1 by ^.Q> by 4.9 feet, or 13.08 cubic yards, 
and weighed about 22 tons each. They were made in work-yards of 
the harbor, and i^laced in position by means of barges. The piers are 
26 yards at the base, 6 yards at the top, 12 yards high, with side slopes 
of 1 on 1. The total amount dredged from the harbor and its depend- 
encies was 6,082,000 cubic yards. A powerful dredge has been con- 
structed to keep the harbor clear, and especially at the entrance, where 
the operation is a difficult one in any but fair weather. 




















i3ie.Brtt<u-Ztake. 



tS>q 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 419 

To-day Port Said is a busy and well-constructed town, with commodi- 
ous quays and wharves, warehouses and dwellings, the whole resting- 
on made land. The town is supplied with fresh water from the Fresh 
Water Canal at Ismailia by an aqueduct 87,490 yards, or 49.1 miles in 
length. 

From Port Said the canal passes nearly due south for some 13 miles 
through Lake Manzaleh. This is nothing but a sandy marsh covered 
with a few inches of brackish water, and separated from the Mediterra- 
nean only by a low sandy spit or neck. 

In excavating through this and similar localities, it was feared that 
the banks of the canal would not be safe from the wash of the waves of 
l^assing steamers, and great care was taken to avoid this danger. A 
slope was made from the canal bank to the water edge, with an incli- 
nation of 1 on 10, and the waves passing up this natural beach lost their 
power of doing damage. To further the excavation and the disposition 
of the dredged materials in these situations, and indeed throughout the 
canal, two peculiar forms of dredge-boats were introduced. 

The dragues a long couloir varied in length, the longest being 75 yards. 
Their shape is that of a semi-ellipse 5 feet wide and 2 feet deep. They 
are supported by a tall, iron framework, resting on the deck of a barge 
97 feet long by 28 feet beam. The slope of the duct is inclined accord- 
ing to circumstances. The dredgings when dropped into the elevated 
end of this long duct are assisted in their downward progress by a 
strong current of water, and. if necessary scrapers or sweepers also are 
used. With this assistance the dredgings were delivered over almost a 
horizontal line, and at a distance from the dredge which enabled it to 
work at almost any position in the canal. The semi-liquid materials 
thus discharged spread themselves over an extended surface, and thus 
became hardened and settled at a low angle. These dredges (twenty- 
two in number) averaged about 90,000 cubic yards a month, and one of 
them exceeded 130,000. When these machines were no longer availa- 
ble by reason of the elevation of the banks, recourse was had to the ele- 
"vateur. In this the inclined plane extended upwards instead of down- 
wards ) was about 52 yards long, and carried two lines of tram rails. 
The inclination is 1 to 4, and the support is in the middle of an iron 
frame, which rests on a carriage running on rails laid for the purpose 
along the banks of the canal and 6 feet above the water line. The lower 
end of the elevateur reaches over the water, where it is again supported 
on a steam float. When at work the lower end is 3 yards above the water, 
and the upper end has an elevation of 12 yards, thus reaching over the 
embankments. A lighter containing seven boxes of dredgings is floated 
under the lower extremity of the elevateur. Each box is raised in suc- 
cession to a truck, and then travels to the upper end of the incline. On 
reaching this point, the box swings vertically, the door opens automati- 
cally, and the contents are discharged, and the box is returned to the 
lighter. 



420 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

At 42 miles from Port Said the canal passes through a cutting from 
60 to 70 feet deep. This barrier was merely an extensive sand dune, and 
the work of removing it was easy in itself but expensive through the 
amount. The greater part of this work Avas done by hand, about 
5,690,000 cubic yards having been removed before the machines were set 
to work. 

Beyond this cutting the small lake, Timsah, was found to be below the 
level of the Mediterranean. It was successfully tilled in two hundred 
and forty-seven days, and the volume of water thus necessary was 
100,000,000 cubic yards. The lake has an area of about 7f square miles. 

On its shores is located the town of Ismailia. This is connected by 
railroad with Cairo and Suez. At this point comes in the Fresh Water 
Canal, which it was found necessary to dig as a x)reliminary to the 
maritime one. It commenced near Cairo and led the waters of the Mle 
to Ismailia, 26 miles, and was then continued to Suez, 42 miles farther. 
Although built of sufficient dimensions to meet the ordinary require- 
ments of an inland canal, the chief service has been to furnish fresh 
water to the towns along the line of the ship-canal, and without it, in- 
deed, these could hardly exist. It was of immense value, during the 
construction, in furnishing a means of bringing supplies to the scene 
of work. 

A second barrier of sand dunes found at Serapeum necessitated ex- 
tensive excavation, which at one time threatened serious trouble through 
the ledge of limestone found therein. Beyond Serapeum the Bitter 
Lakes formed an immense basin below the level of the Mediterranean, 
and an area of 92 square miles demanded 1,891,865,000 cubic yards of 
water. This was safely done in 1869, and the waters of the two seas 
were brought together in this basin. 

The third barrier, that of Chalouf, possessed additional difficulties in 
a bed of rock, requiring blasting, in the existence of hard clay with 
rocky nodules injurious to the dredges, and in its extreme length — 8 
miles — the depth being 62 feet. Thirteen million cubic yards were re- 
moved from this cutting by hand before the dredges were put to work. 
Beyond this part no serious difficulties were encountered until the con- 
struction of the harbor of Suez became necessary. 

A basin dug from the dry land gives 19.7 feet of water at the entrance^ 
and is inclosed by a jetty 4,600 feet in length and from 160 to 490 feet 
in width. A harbor and dock-room has thus been constructed suitable 
for the largest class of steamers. This harbor not being subjected to 
the waves and storms, which are very dangerous and troublesome at 
Port Said, is easily kept clear and in good order. 

Work was commenced on the Suez Canal in April, 1859, and the 
opening ceremonies occurred in November, 1869. The total cost was 
$96,332,000. 

It seems hardly necessary to allude to the immense saving in dis- 
tance gained by the Suez Canal to commerce passing between Lon- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



42t 



don or the Atlantic ports to India and China. From London to Bom- 
bay the distance saved is 9,832 miles, and from New York to Bombay 
8,416 miles, over the route by the Cape of Good Hope. Since the day 
of opening the canal has been kept uninterruptedly open to the largest 
class of ocean steamers, and there have been no delays or accidents of 
any kind. 



ITALY. 



MAP SHOWINa PLAN FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE TIBER AND 
ROMAN CAMPAGNA PROPOSED BY GENERAL GARIBALDI AND PRO- 
FESSOR FILOPANTL 

Tbe Tiber at present runs through Kome, and then by a tortuous course 
empties into the Mediterranean by two mouths. 

Much of the countiy around Eome, called the Agro Eomano, through 
which the river passes, is marshy, unhealthy, and half waste, though nat- 
urally very fertile, and in extent amounts to more than 1,000,000 acres. 
It is to reclaim this land that the improvement is proposed. It con- 
sists — 

1st. In cutting a new channel around Eome through the hills to pre- 
serve the city from inundation. This will require the removal of about 
25,000,000 cubic yards of earth. 

2d. In rectifying the bed of the stream from Eome to near its mouth 
and there dividing it into two branches so as to drain the marshes. 

3d. In making a canal from above Eome through the city, using the 
old bed of the stream restricted by quays, the flow of water being so 
regulated by gates as to have at all times a stream as large as the Seine 
at Paris available for navigation, irrigation, and motive power. 

The canal divides below the city, one branch entering the rectified 
bed of the Tiber, which is to be made navigable ; the other branch emp. 
tying into the Mediterranean above the mouth of the river, and to be 
used for drainage and irrigation. 

A large basin is to be constructed at the mouth of the river and pro- 
tected from winds hj piers. 



THE NETHEELANDS. 

The Netherlands is one of the few countries which have made a spe- 
cial exhibit of engineering works. 

The most prominent of these works are the river improvements, ca- 
nals, and reclamation of lands. All these are finely shown by complete 
models and detailed drawings, and are described in the special catalogue 
of the Netherlands section and in ^'A sketch of the public works in the 
Netherlands, by L. C. Van Kerkwyk." These books were for gratutious 



42 2 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

distributiou, and the following notices on the Netherlands exhibit are 
condensed from them : 

THE NEW HIYER FROM ROTTERDAM TO THE NORTH SEA. 

There are exhibited a drawing, a model in relief showing the work as 
completed, and a model of one of the piers. 

The different channels from Eotterdam to the North Sea becoming 
continually less practicable for navigation, the construction of a new 
one was an urgent necessit3\ 

P. Oaland, the present inspector of the hydraulic department, pre- 
sented a project which was recommended for execution by a council of 
the hydraulic department in 1858, and comprises the improvement of 
the whole river from Krimpen to the sea along the northern arm of 
the Nieuwe Maas, named litt Sclieiir^ and the piercing of the corner of 
Holland. 

By means of dikes and the clearing of some narrow places the river 
is brought to a normal width; the river liet IScheiir is dammed by a dike 
569 yards long, and the river water is carried off by piercing the corner 
{lioelx) of Holland, which piercing is widened into a river mouth by the 
working of the ebb and flow. This river mouth is continued to a suffi- 
cient depth into the sea by two dams, whilst dikes along these future 
bank lines, joining these dams, will limit the width of the river mouth. 

The two dams in the sea are made of fagots covered with stones and 
fenced in by oak piles. The southern dam has, moreover, an oaken 
scaffolding to the height of 3 J yards above the ordinary low- water mark. 
The top is defended by a palisade consisting of two or three rows of 
piles. This dam, upon which is raised an iron light-house, has a length 
of 2,004 yards and a crown width of 16^ feet. The northern dam will 
have a length of 2,166 yards. 

The work is now (September 1, 1875) so far advanced that in the 
most shallow part of the gully was measured 13 feet of water with or- 
dinary low, and 18J feet with ordinary high, water. 

In the year 1875 there passed this canal 7,127 ships, measuring to- 
gether 2,982,143 tons, besides 1,503 fishing boats, measuring together 
105,537 tons. The cost of construction up to the year 1875 amounted 
to 10,000,000 guilders. 

CANAL FROM AMSTERDAM TO THE NORTH SEA THROUGH THE ISTH- 
MUS OF HOLLAND. 

(Drawing and. model in relief.) 

This canal, having a width on the water surface varying from 141 to 
65 yards, is constructed to establish a regular communication between the 
North Sea, and Zuyderzee to promote the navigation of Amsterdam. 

The works, begun in 1864 and executed by a comi^any, consist, besides 
the digging and excavation of the canal, in the construction of a port 



THE EXG INKER SECTION. 423 

on the North Sea, and the embanking and draining of grounds on both 
sides of the canal in Ij and the W^ylver Lalve. 

The port on the North Sea is constructed by piers, advancing into the 
sea, made of betou blocks, founded on large basalt enrockments, fortified 
on theoutsides. The entrance to this port has a width of 282 jards; 
the depth is 2Qi feet under low water. The bottom of the canal west of 
Amsterdam is 22J feet under canal-gauge, and will be deepened to 24| 
feet. Branch canals join it to several places, which communicated for- 
merly with the Ij by water. 

East of Amsterdam, a dike of about 1,300 yards separates the canal 
from the Zuyderzee. In this dike have been constructed locks of 19.65 
and 10.83 yards width and 104,76.86 and 41 yards locking capacity. A 
large building erected on the east side of these locks contains three cen- 
trifugal pumping engines each displacing 2,166 cubic yards of water a 
minute, and which are to keep the water in the canal to the prescribed 
height. 

West of Amsterdam, 1,300 yards inside the beach, the canal is sepa- 
rated from the North Sea by a sea-lock with an opening 19.5 yards 
wide, and 130 yards locking capacity, and two smaller ones 13 and 10.83 
yards wide and 76 and 35.9 yards locking capacity. For these works, 
which are to be finished in 1877, 5,416,000 cubic yards will have to be 
dug out for the tract running through the sand-hills (duinen), and the 
same quantity to be dredged. 

Of the 5,000 hectares of ground that are to be drained, more than 
half the quantity has been drained already, sold on average of 2,000 
guilders per hectare, and are now under cultivation. 

The expenses of constructing the canal will amount to 27,000,000 guild- 
ers. This sum is raised, partly by the sale of grounds by the subsidy 
of the city of Amsterdam and by the advances and guaranteeing of the 
interest by the Government. 

During twenty years the company has the right to levy sluice, port, 
and canal dues according to rates to be fixed in concert with the Gov- 
ernment. 

The works are executed by the company under superintendence of 
the Government, by the chief engineer of the hydraulic department, I. 
Dirks. 

FOUNDATIONS WITH COMPRESSED AIR OF THE PILLARS OF THE RAIL- 
WAY BRIDGE ACROSS THE MAAS AT ROTTERDAM. 

(Drawiug.) 

The considerable depth of the river Maas at the spot where the two 
piers of the bridge of the State Eailway from Eotterdam to Dordrecht 
were to be built, viz, from 10 to 11 yards below high water, which depth 
increased by high floods to about 13 yards, caused these two piers to be 
founded by means of compressed air. This was executed in the follow- 
ing manner : 



424 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



For every pier was used an iron cylinder, whose top was continually 
above water and in which at some distance above the under edge had 
been made a flooring. On this flooring the brick- work was continued, 
whilst under it the ground was excavated till the whole had sank by its 
weight to such a depth that the pillar rested on a strong bottom. The 
space under the flooring was then filled with concrete. To be able to 




Foundations with compressed air at Eotterdam. 

work in this room it was necessary to remove the water by compressed 
air. This was performed by means of force pumps driven by two por- 
table engines, each of 22 horse-power. 

Two sets of entrance pipes had been placed on said flooring and 
reached above the cylinder. Every set had an air-pipe with an acclima- 
tion room, and so constructed that the concrete could be brought in and 
the ground excavated. 

The properly called air-room, the entrance-room, and the work-room 
(the space under the flooring) were continually filled with compressed 
air. To descend into the work-room, the man had to go into the ac- 
climation-room, shut the outer door, make the compressed air in the 
entrance-room escape into the acclimation-room by opening a cock ; af- 
ter having got the equilibrium, open the door which separates the two 
rooms, by which opening he could now go to the entrance-room, reshut 



THE EXGIXEER SECT! OX. 425 

the door, and descend by a ladder into one of the entrance-pipes. The 
compressed air in the acclimation-room conkl be removed again from 
the outside by the opening of a cock, if it were necessary, before enter- 
ing or leaving the acclimation-room. 

The bridge, of which the superstructure is in course of construction 
(December, 1875), is projected by the chief engineer of the hydraulic 
department, N. T. Michaelis. 

LOCKS AND SLUICES. 

Tide- loci's. —In a country intersected by so many rivers and canals, 
and so crowded with lakes and fens, as tlie kingdom of Holland (formerly 
the Low Countries), where a considerable foreign trade flourished even 
at early date, the necessity of easily transmitting ships from a higher 
to a lower level, and vice versa, must have been felt very soon. 

History appears to indicate that the invention of locks is of Dutch 
origin, and that it dates from the Middle Ages. Locks, through which 
laden vessels could pass without diflaculty, were known in this country 
as early as 1253. 

It seems that the number of locks greatly increased in Holland after 
the year 1315. In official documents dated from 1413, mention is made 
of locks then being in use at Amsterdam. 

The first technical description of locks is from the hand of Simon 
Stevin, and dates from 1G18. By its being translated into foreign lan- 
guages, they soon became more generally known. 

Fan-locks.— Another Dutch invention relative to locks and sluices 
dates from the year 1808, when the inspector general of the Govern- 
ment civil engineers, Mr. I. Blanken, invented the fan-locks. These pos- 




Plan of Blanten's gate. — Invented in 1808. 
a b, Fan. a c, Miter-gate. 

sess the important quality of opening and shutting by the mere applica- 
tion of the excess of pressure of the water on either side of the gate. To 
effect this, each heel-post has two gates attached to it, at an angle of 
about 8O0 between them. One of them is the common miter-gate ; the 
other has a greater width, and is called the fan. They are strongly 
connected together by means of coupling-beams. The horizontal sec- 
tion of the gate-chamber is a quadrant, one radius of which is in the 



426 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



direction of the lock-wall, the arc beiug turned towards the same side 
as the miter-sill. The radius of this recess is of such a length that the 
fan can just turn in it, the axis of the heel-post coinciding with the cen- 
ter of the horizontal section. 

The quoins for the corner, formed by the arc and the face of the lock- 
wall, are cut with a square ridge, so applied that when the miter gate 
is shut the fan presses against it and closes the gate chamber. 

By sluices with slides, there is communication between the gate-cham- 
ber and the water on either side of the gate. If then, for instance, the 
communication between the recess and the high water be opened, the 
fan will shut on account of its offering a larger surface to the pressure 
of the water than the miter-gate, and the two being connected, the lat- 
ter is forced to shut also. This shows that these gates are able to with- 
hold the high water on either side of the miter-gate. If, on the con- 
trary, the gates must be opened against high water, the communication 
with the high water is cut oft", and that with the low water opened. 
Then the water in the recess will fall, and for the same reason, as ex- 
plained before, the fan will be pressed into the recess and the miter-gate 
will open against the higher water. 

It is easy to conclude from this short description, of how much use 
this contrivance must be for outlet and inundation purposes, and that 
it may often be successfully ai3plied to tide-locks and drainage sluices. 

alewijn's g-ates. 
Model showing one of a pair of gates. 




THE ENGIXEER SECTIOX. 



427 



These, like the fan-gates, are constructed to open and close automat- 
ically by taking advantage of the diiference of pressure of high and low 
water. This result is accomplished as follows : 

Each gate consists of three parts, the gate proper, D A (see figure), 
and the sides A B and B C, which, with the wall C D, form a water-tight 
chamber jointed at its four angles. This chamber can be put in commu- 
nication with the high or low water by means of sluices and valves. 




ii 






ill I H ! { Ml i i M ! M I 

i!i liHiliiil ! ll ! M llilii III I 



IHIIIIilllll lil^FMTiin 



! I 



MHiy^ 



u 



IM 




Alewijn's gates. — Perspective view. 

When the high-water level is maintained in this chamber the gates 
remain closed, and can be opened by making a communication between 
this chamber and low water, whether the low water is at the outside or 
inside of the lock. There is a crane (shown in the perspective view) 
which helps to support the weight of the chamber. The dotted lines 
in the figure show the position the gates assume when open. 

LOCK WILLIAM III. 



(A drawing.) 

The Lock William III, built in the year 1861-'64 and situated at the 
entrance of the North Holland Ganal, opposite Amsterdam, has a length 
of 154 yards. It has three pair of ebb and three pair of flood-gates, 
partly of wood, partly of iron. They divide the lock-chamber, that is 
118.3 yards long, into two smaller ones of 69.55 and 48.21 yards in length. 
The whole of one of the smaller chambers is used according to the size 
of the ship. The lock has a width of 19.71 yards, and its sill lies 7.04 
yards below the water-line of the ^N^orth Holland Canal. 

The exhibited drawing shows how, on account of the marshy ground, 
engineers in Holland are often obliged to construct the foundations on 
piles rammed in the ground. The expenses of the lock, with its chan- 
nels, amounted to 1,013,255 florins. 



428 INTERNATIOXAL EXHIBITIOX, 1876. 

By employing both wooden and iron gates a comparative trial is 
made to judge which of them will answer best for the purpose. Up to 
this time, on account of the oxidation, the result is in favor of the wooden 
gates in locks of these dimensions. 

The lock was planned and built by the chief engineer of the hydraulic 
department, J. F. W. Conrad. 

SURFACE MODEL OF THE ZUYDERZEE, WITH MAP SHOWING THE 
PROJECTED DRAINING OF THE ZUYDERZEE. 

Haarlem Lake is drained, 

And drained is the Y ; 
If peace is maintained, 

Zuyderzee gets dry. 

This geological colored surface model represents the Zuyderzee and 
surrounding districts in relief. The soil of Holland is comi)osed of peat, 
clay, and sand. 

In the beginning of our era, the sea covered the greater part of Hol- 
land. It was only in the sixteenth century, after the invention of wind- 
mills, that a greater part of the country could be drained by wind 
power. In the seventeenth century the Beemster, Worraer, and other 
inland lakes were converted into arable land or meadows. In the present 
century the Haarlem Lake was drained by steam-power, and recently 
the sea gulf, the Y, was converted into a canal and the surrounding- 
water into corn-fields. 

It has since been proposed to drain several parts of the Zuyderzee. 
The largest plan, which probably will be executed ere long, is to drain 
the whole southern part of it (400,000 acres) by making a dike from 
Enkhuizen to Kampen, joining the Isle of Urk. Through and around 
the drained sea several canals and railways will be made, by which 
Amsterdam will get a good communication with the surrounding prov- 
inces. 

The bottom of the sea has been exi^lored, and consists, for a greater 
part, of clay a small part of peat, and the northern part of sand. 

A second part proposed to be drained, includes the connection of the 
island Ameland with the coast of Friesland. Further, it is proposed to 
drain the Wieringen Lake. Concession has been asked for diking the 
parts of the sea near the coast of Guelderland and Overj'ssel. As soon 
as these parts are drained, there will onlj^ remain the delta included 
between the islands Texel and Ylieland, which will be united by a dike. 

The model was made by Mr. I. P. Amersfoordt at Badhoeve, Haar- 
lem mermeerpolder. 

DRAINING OF THE HAARLEM LAKE. 

(Drawing.) 

This lake, which has an area of 18,151 hectares was drained in 1840 
and 1852. In order to establish a regular effliW of the water of the 




09 

Z 
< 

sn 

fiC 

> 
S 

u. 
O 

2 
O 

o 

ui 

H 
O 

GC 

a. 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 429 

many surroiiDding polders, three steain-pumiHug stations had to be 
erected and the mouth at Katuj^k improved. These water engines are 
l^rovided with three scoop wheels of 7.15 to 5.63 yards in diameter and 
2.70 to 1.95 in width, AA^hich work at seven to 10 strokes a minute, and 
raise the water to a height of 3 feet 3 inches. 

The dike constructed round the lake has a length of about 65,000 
yards. The drainage has been accomplished by means of three steam- 
l)umping engines raising the water by means of ordinary lift-pumps. 
One of the water engines has eleven cast-iron pumps of 1.73 yards di- 
ameter with a piston stroke of 9.25 feet, making six strokes a minute, 
and raising the water 4.87 yards. At every stroke each pump dis- 
charges 6J cubic yards of water. The two others have each eight 
pumps of 2 yards diameter with the same piston stroke and the same 
power as the former engine. The number of strokes is six to six and 
a half a minute, by which 7 cubic yards of water are brought up by 
each pump at a stroke. Nine hundred million cubic yards of water 
have been removed. 

The expenses of this draining, borne by Government, amounted to 
nearly 14,000,000 of guilders, of which 9,000,000 have been reimbursed 
by ground sold and other profits, so that the whole work has cost 
nearly 4,000,000 guilders. 

A SERIES OF DRAWINGS SHOWING THE DEFENSE OF RIVER BANKS 
AGAINST THE CURRENT. 

Eiver banks where there is no tide are protected from wear by fascine 
and packing works, besides dams made of fascine mattresses. 

These mattresses are made of osier fagots bound together — held to 
the bank to be protected by ballast to prevent them from being under- 
mined by the current. The influence of the current and ice along the 
upjjer i)art would soon loosen itj it is therefore strengthened by fascines 
forming a i)acking work. 

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. 

1. Fagots. 

2. Construction of a weep. 

3. Ground plan of a fence. 

4. Filling up of the river side to be defended. 

5. Beginning of the fascine work. 

6. Manner of constructing the second outwork. 

7. The first outwork covered with a bed of osiers. 

8. The following sconces fortified by fascines. 

9. Fascine work provided with fences. 

10. The squares formed by the fences on a larger scale. 

11. Wicker work sunk by ballast. 

12. Fanlike junction of the lower mantlets, to give required length of the front line, 

13. Section of fascine work. 

14. Manner of fortifying the fascine work by means of packing works. 

15. The sunken fascine work seen on the water level, before the waving line is filled 

up by wicker work. 




PROTECTION OF RIVER BANKS. 



43 O INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

16. Stuffing of the fascine with fagots. 

17. Covering with loose osier wood. 

18. Manner of sinking the fascine work. 

19. Section of the fascine work. 

20. Covering bed, showing fences, with fascines behind. 

21. The covering bed. 

22. Construction of a dam, by means of fascinage (horizontal section). 

23. The same, vertical section. 

24. The dam finished (horizontal projection). 

25. The same, longitudinal section. 

MODEL OF A ''ZINKSTUK" (FASOINE BED) WITH FENCES AND OSIER 

WOOD IN FAGOTS. 

• 

This model shows the construction of fascine beds, which are usually 
made in Holland, the coffer dams and banks in the sea (such as that 
constructed for the new river from Eotterdam to the sea). Generally 
a niattress or bed consists of an under and upper grating of fagots, 
between which is a solid filling of osier wood or reeds, or of both together 
in two or three cross-layers. On the upper gratiDg are placed cross - 
fences, twisted with tough willow- wood, forming cases in which is thrown 
the ballast to make the whole sink where it is necessary. 

The following interesting description of the above is taken from a 
sketch of the public works in the Netherlands by L. C. Van Kerkwyki 

PROTECTION Oh' RIVER BANKS. ' 

The banks of rivers beyond the reach of the tides are protected against wash and 
scour by different sorts of fascine work, designated in Holland by the names of " Blees," 
''Pak," ''Baard," and ^'Kribwerken." 

For the construction of these fascine works the following articles are employed: 

1st. "Eijsbossen" (bundles of fascines), usually bound round with two tough osiers, 
about 4™.r)0 long, and measuring about 0'".47 in circumference near the lower band. 

2d. "Latten" or " Gaarden" are selected tough, thin sticks. 

3d. ''Palen" are stakes between 1'".20 and 1^^.50 long, about 0"\15 thicHtat the root 
end. 

4th. "Bauden" are thin top-ends of osiers of one year's growth 1™.10 or 1™.20 long. 

5th. " Wiepen" ; a soft of rope having the appearance of a very long and thin fagot. 
They are made of tough fascines, having a circumference of about 0™.30, and are bound 
round with seven small bands per meter. Their length depends upon the size of the 
mattress. 

6th. **Tuinen" are wattling made of stout **latten." 

7th. ** Ballast," consisting of sand, broken bricks, and lumps of clay. 

A. " Bleeswerken^' {Blees works). — This is the name given to a mattress of fascines, 
constructed as described hereafter, which, being properly fastened on one side to the 
river bank, about the height of the water-level, is further loaded with ballast and 
made to sink against the slope of the bank, and to cover it like a sheet or curtain, so 
as to protect it against being undermined by the scouring current. 

The width of this protection depends upon the depth of the river, and the position 
of the part of the bank to be protected, it being evident that, according to the spot 
being more or less exposed to scour, the lower edge of the fascine covering must be 
made to i)roject over the bottom of the river, in order to prevent its being torn to 
pieces, in case the current be strong enough to deepen the river beyond the fas- 
cines. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 43 I 

The length of '' bleesworks" is limited ouly by the length of the intended protec- 
tion. Its thickness is usually 1™ ormore,butthe top edge is left thinner in consequence 
of the mode of construction. In a strong current the up-stream edge is made a little 
thicker, lest the stream should bend it, roll the mattress over, and carry it off. It 
must be borne in mind that the validity of the work does not so much depend upon 
the thickness as on the proper bond between the different parts of the structure. 

Before placing the i^rotection the bank above the water must be brought into a reg- 
ular shape, and a small berm made in it about 2™ wide, on a level with the water. 
Further, it is necessary to take ample and accurate soundings, so that any irregular- 
ity in the part about to be covered may be kept in view in computing the width of 
the covering required at each spot. 

The work should not be made unless the water be about half a meter below mean 
level, to insure as much as possible a continual submersion of the work after its com- 
pletion, which is efficient for the preservation of the fascines. 

The "bleeswork" is begun up-stream by a layer of bundles of fascines (rijshossen) 
laid with the root ends on the bank and pointing up-stream with the top ends in a 
slanting direction, say at an angle of 30° to 40°; the root ends are well secured to 
the bank by stakes (palen). Upon this more layers are laid in the same direction, 
each springing about 0™.50 or 0^^.60 forward with respect to the lower fascines, and 
the whole so arranged as to form a triangle, the up-stream side of which also diverges 
from the bank, but in an opposite direction and at an angle of about 60°. This tri- 
angle, whose up-stream side has a length of 2™ to 2^"^ is further covered by some bun- 
dles and loose fascines laid across it, and the whole consolidated by stakes {palen) 
stuck perpendicularly through the bundles. 

Across this first tier (uiischot), and in the direction of the up-stream edge, some 
fascine ropes {wiepen) 7™ long are laid at 1"^ distance from one another. Along the 
up-stream edge two of these fascine ropes are laid close together. They are all well 
fastened in the bank and to the fascines, by stakes stuck through them at regular 
distances of about 0™.40, and are made to project 3™ or 4'^ beyond the tier of fascines. 
Their ends floating on the water, also receive the necessary stakes. 

In general it will be requisite, especially for the construction of this first tier, con- 
stantly to keep in view the promotion of strength and bond by an ample and judicious 
application of stakes and fascine ropes. 

The following tiers or uitscliois are made in about the same manner and in connec- 
tion with the former. The first layer of bundles of fascines is placed again with the 
root ends upon the bank, in the same direction as those of the first tier, and so fastened 
down to the bank. The following layer is allowed to spring forward 0™.60, but the 
subsequent ones only about 0'».45. By allowing the second layer to spring forward a 
little more than the subsequent ones, the flexibility is maintained in the upper edge, 
which is of great use for the proper sinking of the mattress. 

The tiers are made partly to cover one another, and the fascine ropes laid across the 
one tier are made so much longer as to be fit to receive and support the next one. 
The inner end is either fastened to the bank by stakes or with strong bands to the 
one passing over the former tier. The two fascine ropes passing over the fascines along 
the up-stream edge are well tied, at short intervals, to the two underneath ones. 

Every tier, having the form of a trapezoid, will add about l^^.HO or 1™.50 to the width 
of the work in the diagonal direction in which it proceeds. They are made wider or 
narrower according to the strength of the current ; the narrower ones of course being- 
stronger and better connected by the fascine ropes and stakes. The lengths of these 
tiers increase until the full length of the up-stream edge of the mattress has been 
reached. Further on they vary in length according to the irregularities of bottom and 
the shape of the hole in the bank, the work being so constructed that the outward 
edge or toe forms a straight line when the mattress is sunk. So the work proceeds; 
the unclerneath fascine ropes, whilst preventing the top ends of the fascines being 
bent downwards by the current, establish a proper connection between the different 
tiers. 



432 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

It is also very useful, from time to time as the work proceeds, to lay a long fascine- 
rope along the up-stream edge, well fastened in the bank, and. to the finished work, 
and of course projecting beyond it in the same way as the short ones. 

The full width of the intended protection along the up-stream edge being reached, 
the up-stream corner of the mattress will be subject to being caught and pressed 
down by the current on accbunt of the downward sloping position of the bundles at 
the end of the tier. To prevent this some bandies are stuck in with the root ends 
outward, and nearly in the direction of the current and then the whole is covered 
with a layer of loose fascines about 0™.20 thick. This layer, in which the fascines 
are deposited in a direction opposite to that of the bundles underneath, is allowed 
to reach from 2™ to 4™ over the bank, where it gradually diminishes in thickness. 
This projecting part is necessary for a better connection of the whole with the bank. 
The latter layer, called the covering layer, is fastened to the fascines underneath 
by means of tuinen or wattling. This consists of lines of stakes hammered into the 
fascines and wattled with latten. The lines of wattling run in the direction of the 
up-stream edge, but a very strong one goes around the whole mattress, and a fascine 
rope is laid and well fastened along the inside of it. Parallel to this, and at the dis- 
tance of V^, another line of wattling is applied all around. 

The wattlings parallel to the up-stream edge are 0"^.60 or 0"\80 apart, and the ends of 
the wattling sticks are turned round the edge wattling and so fastened. 

All the wattling are continued a little way over the bank and secured by another 
wattling or a fascine-rope running across them and well fastened down. 

At distances of from 2"^ to 4"i longitudinal lines of wattling are made, which are inter- 
wattled with the cross-lines of wattling, and so form a sort of box fit to receive and 
hold the ballast. At places where the water is rough the covering layer is fastened 
alternately by a line of wattling, and a fascine-rope, the latter being less subject to 
getting detached from the mattress by the motion of the water than the former. 

The sinking of the hleeswork must be effected with much caution, in order to get it 
flat against the river bank. The influence of the current may never be lost sight of 
during the sinking. When from 45*" to 60™ run of the hleeswork are completed, the 
sinking may be started at the up-stream end. Here a vast amount of ballast is then 
heaped up on the point attached to the bank, so as to prevent its getting pulled out 
by the current during the sinking process. Then the ballasting is continued along 
the up-stream edge and gradually towards the middle of the river. As soon as the 
edge begins to sink it is necessary to load it with some gravel, as tie current, then 
applying its full force on it, might wash away the sand and cause the mattress to 
rise again. At places where the mattress does not sink below the water it must be 
well loaded with gravel and other ballast for a better consolidation of the work with 
the river banks. 

After being sunk the Meesworli must be ballasted still more, always beginning from 
the top and proceeding towards the lower edge. This is generally done with gravel, 
and continued until no more wood is felt in sounding. If the sinking is up-stream 
before the whole work is completed, care must be taken that 20 to 30 linear meters of 
the mattress are always kept afloat, otherwise the current might press it all down 
and prevent its completion. 

Finally it must be borne in mind that this sort of protection is only applicable to 
the upper rivers beyond the influence of the tides, and that it cannot be made in places 
where there is a whirling current. 

B. '' Pak or laardwerJcen" {packing or heardivorks). — The Meeswork being applied to a 
spot where the river bank has been undermined and partly destroyed, it is generally 
recxuisite to restore that bank to its former direction, M'hich, on account of its exposed 
position, is also effected by means of fascine-works. They are known by the name of 
packing or deardivork. They are so constructed as to protect the upper part of the 
Neesivork against the action of current and ice. This is done by the so-called baardlagen 
(beardlayers). Over these, and over such parts of the hUeswork, in the line of the 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 433 

projected Tvork, as are not entirely submerged, the bank is further raised to the re- 
quired height, by means of so-called covering layers. This process is termed the 
herming up of the hIeesivorTcs. 

The hleesivorks, where not submerged, present a rough and wavy surface, which is 
filled in and leveled by packing work, so applied as to give it a smooth facing line 
towards the river side. The name of leardlayer is usually applied to all the work 
below the water-level. 

The fascine-bank is started at the up-stream end, and this being the spot where the 
damage to the original river bank begins, the bJeesworJc there can never lie deep. 

Consequently a layer of packing work, as just described, will usually form the first 
part of the work. If further on much of the river bank has been carried away, so that 
the packing work must pass through a certain depth of water, it progresses in the 
following manner : 

The first bundles of fascines are laid down with the root ends resting upon the com- 
pleted work and in the direction of the projected fascine-bank. The facing bundles 
are placed in a somewhat slanting direction, this allowing the top ends of the fascines 
to project into the river and to form a protection to the underlying bleeswork. 

The second layer of bundleg, deposited in the same direction as the first, is allowed 
to spring forward about 0^.60 or less, according to the depth of water. The width of 
each of these layers must be computed beforehand, with regard to the position it will 
take up after being sunk in place. Every two layers of bundles are fastened together 
and to the preceding work b^' some fascine-ropes, especially along the edges. These 
fascine-ropes project forward in the water. 

In a strong current it may be necessary to support the top ends of the deposited 
bundles with some cross-bundles, but this must be avoided as much as possible in or- 
der to maintain the uniform position of the layers and the tightness of the work. 

Some layers being placed, they are covered with some loose fascines, and well consol- 
idated together and fastened to the completed work by means of fascine-ropes and wat- 
tliugs. Then the mass is weighted with ballast until its surface is about level with 
the water. Then a second layer is constructed in the same manner, followed by a 
third, and so on until the required height and length has been arrived at, and the 
structure reposes at the bottom. Any post being properly sunk to the bottom must 
be well loaded with great heaps of gravel, which are not to be leveled until the work 
has properly settled. In a strong current gravel is also tipped along the outward 
slope. 

The shallows of a hleesivorTc over which the fascine-bank is to pass are often but 
short distances, and in such cases the filling and leveling may sometimes be eftected 
by one continuous layer, but in the actual beardworks a single layer would be too 
weak on account of its great length, and therefore they must be constructed as above 
described. In either case, however, the layers stretching forward are covered by thin 
layers of loose fascines in a reversed dirjction, beginning at the lower end. 

The thickness of beard and covering layer together is usually not more than 0™.60. 
The bundles are so placed that, the top of the beardwork being reached, it is wide 
enough to receive the top -w ork, whilst the top ends of the fascines of the beardwork 
project to about one-third of the length of the bundles beyond the base of that top 
work. 

Any part of the beardwork having reached its proper height is further consolidated 
by means of longitudinal fascine-ropes, two of which run tight together along the 
outer edge and the others 0"i.60 to Qn'.SO apart. They are fastened by ten stakes per 4"^ 
run, well hammered into the underlying fascines. For a length of S'" to 6™ they are 
fastened to the completed work and from 3"^ to 4"^ they project forward in the water. 

The top work of the actual packing work consists entirely of cross or covering 
layers, and has a slight slope of 1 to 20 towards the shore. The facing slope is gen- 
erally 1 to 1. 

The bundles are laid aslant in these cross-layers, with the top ends outward and 
28 CEN 



434 ' INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

pointiug up-stream aud so far forward that one-half of the facing bundle projects be- 
yond the section. This heard is of great use in protecting the work, as the ice must 
wear it all off before getting to the actual body of the bank. The layer is started at 
the outward face and carried on towards the shore, the top ends of the fascines lying 
uppermost. The thickness of these cross-layers must be as little as possible and may 
not exceed 0™.40 including the fascine-ropes. The bundles are cut loose and flattened 
down after being placed. 

Along the outer line these layers are fastened by two lines of wattling 0™.60 apart, 
with a fascine-rope behind them, and further with fascine-ropes alone also 0"^.60 
apart; the whole is then filled in with gravel as high as the tops of the wattling and 
the fascine-ropes. Very often another such layer is added not more than 0"^.30 thick. 
This is also covered with gravel, clay, or sand, so that not only the wattling but even 
the tops of the stakes become invisible. 

The reason why the upper layers are made as thin as possible is, that the layer 
very soon gets loose when the wattlings are damaged by the action of the weather^ 
the water, and the ice, and in such a case the next layer becomes the top layer, so that 
the work will be guarded against total destruction the more numerous the. covering 
layers are. 

C. KrihiverTcen (groins). — The groins in the main rivers of Holland are usually made 
to reach 0'^.20 or 0"°.30 above mean summer level, rising about 1 in 200 towards the 
shore, or a little more in short groins, and with a top width of 3™ or 4™, side slopes of 
1 to 1, and an end slope of 1^ or 2, to 1. 

The groins are constructed about in the same way as the hleesworks, with layers 
springing gradually forward and covering layers alternately. If the groin is not de- 
signed at right angles with the shore, the first layer is made in the form of a triangle 
so as to get square work for the remainder. 

During the construction care must be taken that the floating work be not made too 
long, as it would then be too easily turned out of its proper direction or carried away 
by the current. 

The sinking, beginning at the root end, is effected as the work progresses. If for 
some reason or other it does not keep pace with the progress of the work, so that the 
floating work should become too extensive, an additional covering layer to about the 
half of the floating work may be added on the shore side and amply weighted with 
ballast. On the other hand, the tiers must not be made too short, for then the float- 
ing work would not be long enough with respect to the depth of water, which would 
give the work too much stiffness and prevent its properly sinking to the bottom. 

If the body of the groin sink deeper in one place than in another, the level is made 
up by small covering layers. The required height of the groins is further made up 
of covering layers about 0™.30 thick, and after the top being leveled by filling up 
holes, or removing heights if necessary, a thin layer of loose fascines is spread over 
it. Strong lines of wattling carried longitudinally over the top, and then the whole 
covered with a layer of gravel, broken bricks, and clay mixed together, or with a 
regular basalt pitching, as the case may require. 

If the bank, to which the groin is applied, be steep, or if there be any apprehen- 
sion that the bottom be scoured away along the groin, it is often constructed on a 
foundation consisting of a "bleeswork " 

In the tidal rivers the dams and groins are usually built up of a series of fascine 
mattresses called zwTcstukken (sinking pieces). 

Such a sinking piece consists of a lower and an upper net of fascine-ropes, between 
which two or three layers of bundles of fascines or reeds, or fascines and reeds (de- 
posited in each layer at right angles with the lower one), are tightly nipped together. 

The fascine-ropes, 0^^.35 to 0™.40 in circumference, are made of branches of tough 
water-willow with their twigs left on, and of which the half is to be at least 1"^ and 
the other half at least 2^ long. They are tightly bound together by 6 osier bands. 

The fascine bundles are fagots of straight young willow, full of branches and 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



435 



twigs 2™ or 3"! long, and well fastened together by at least two strong osiers. They 
are about 0™.45 or 0.50"" in circumference at the root end, and 0™.38 or 0™.40 at the top 
end. 

The reeds, cut with the feather on, are bound in bundles at least 2 or 2™.50 long 
and 0™.50 thick in circumference. 

For the construction of the sinking piece a spot is commonly chosen between high 
and low water, as much as possible protected against the wash of the waves, and not 
very far from the intended site of the sinking piece. The form and size, the sort 
and quantity of the stone and other ballast for the sinking and subsequent loading 
of the mattress, all depend upon circumstances. 

For the lower network fascine-ropes of the required length are laid out on the 
ground parallel to one another, at distances of O'n.TO to l"^ from center to center. 
These are crossed by a similar layer, at right angles to the first, the two together 
forming a network of the size of the projected mattress ; the ends of the fascine- 
ropes extending to O'^.SO beyond the last crossing. Every alternate crossing is then 
well tied together withjtarred rope of 0™. 035 circumference, 2"^. 50 long, or a little less 
if there be only two layers^of fascines. The ends of these ropes are fastened to the 
tops of stakes stuck perpendicularly in the fascine-ropes, so that they may easily be 
found afterwards, when they must serve to fasten the crossings of the top network 
and at the same time to lash it well to the lower net. The other crossings are tied 
with bands of osier. The edge crossings are all fastened with rope. 

Straps of strong rope 0™.07 in circumference, of sufficient lengtb to reach far 
enough beyond the layers of fascines and each with a thimble in it, are fastened to 
the crossings of the second fascine- rope from the edge at distances of 8"™. or lO"". Then 
the fascine filling is spread at least 0'".45 thick. The bundles are laid, as already 
stated, in horizontal layers, the fascines in each layer at right angles with those 
underneath it, and very closely packed together, so that the mattress after being 
securely lashed has a uniform tightness all over. The top network is then placed 
exactly over the lower net, with the lower fascine-ropes at right angles with the 
fascines of the top layer. Then the above-mentioned ropes are lashed round the 
corresponding crossings. 

The remaining crossings are fastened by osier bands, the same as in the lower net. 

Over the outer fascine-ropes all round, and also over every other adjoining, lines of 
wattling are placed, the stakes of which are hammered in 0™.35 to 0™.40 apart. For 
the wattling even and straight branches of tough water- willow are used. It is made 
0^.18 high, being well hammered down, the ends of the stakes remaining O'^.OS 
above the wattling. 

Every fourth stake is heavier than the others and called anchor stake. They remain 
with their tops 0™.10 above the wattling, and have a keyhole 0™. 07 from the top, 
0™.04 long and 0™.0125 wide, in which a key is hammered 0'^.25 long, perpendicular 
to the wattling. The anchor stakes are I^^.IO and the other 1™ long. These wattlings 
form a gangway along the edge of the mattress, and they divide the remaining surface 
in squares. In the corner-crossings of the fifth fascine-rope from the edge perpen- 
dicular to it, and further at distances of 15"^, so-called proppen are made. They are 
a set of twelve to fourteen heavy stakes hammered in close together in a slanting 
direction, and serve as mooring i)08ts for fastening the hawsers required for towing 
and for keeping the mattress in its place during the sinking. These stakes are long 
enough to be driven into a couple of bundles of heavy stakes fastened for their sup- 
port to the lower network. A buoy properly marked, and of the necessary floating 
capacity, is fastened, with a strong line 3'^ longer than one-fourth times the depth 
below high water of the intended site for the sinking, to each corner, and further at 
every 30"^ distance along the longest side of the mattress. The sinking piece thus 
completed is towed to its place when the tide is up and placed in its proper position. 
For this purpose the center line of the mattress is marked by at least three perpen- 
dicular beacon poles of sufficient length, which are to be kept in the right direction 



436 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

during the process of sinking. The mattress is then secured in its place by hawsers 
thrown around the projypen with wide nooses, and fastened to anchors previously 
deposited for the purpose. Vessels laden with clay and stone are so placed round 
the mattress as to insure equal division of the weight over the whole. 

After being properly anchored, and each, of them fastened to the opposite vessel 
with at least one line, the ends of ropes, called "hanging lines," reefed through the 
above-described straps and thimbles, are so fastened on board these boats that one end 
can be easily cast off. Then. the ballast is discharged and divided equally over the 
mattress, beginning from the center, but especially in the " gangways " it must be 
spread with care. 

In order to effect this work with requisite regularity and speed, a gang of five men 
per 100 square meters are wanted, besides the skippers and their men (two men on 
board of each barge). 

So soon as the piece is sufficiently ballasted and the current diminished, the signal 
is given for letting go the " hanging lines" and so the mattress is allowed to sink. 
Immediately after the sinking the ballast boats scatter the sunken piece and discharge 
the remainder of the ballast as regularly as possible, one man being placed at each 
buoy-line to keep it clear from the stones. The buoys remain attached to the piece 
during twenty-four hours after the sinking ; they serve to ascertain whether the mat- 
tress has sunk in the proper position. If the buoy-lines cannot be removed by pulling 
they are cut off as low as possible. By this process the sinking can take place so ac- 
curately that in the specifications for this sort of work no greater deviation from the 
projected site is allowed than one-tenth of the length or width, as the case maj be 
in the direction of the current, and at the utm.ost l"^ in the direction perpendicular to 
the current. 

If a " sinking piece" is to be placed close to the shore, so that part of it would 
reach above low water, a hole must be dug or dredged to tit it in, and such part of 
the mattress entirely covered with a regular layer of stones. Sinking pieces adjoining 
other works are united with them as accurately as iDossible. ^ 

The above is also described in General Barnard's report on the North 
Sea Canal. 

COAST PROTECTIONS. 
DOWNS. 

The Netherlands, bordered on the west by the North Sea, with the 
Zuyderzee in its very center, and intersected by numerous rivers, can 
only be protected against inundation by artificial means. It is trn.e that, 
in a general sense, a natural protection is formed along the coast of 
the North Sea by a row of sand-hills or '' downs," but these are found 
everywhere, and they are themselves subject to considerable damage 
from the wash of the waves, swept up against them in storm-tides. 
This causes ground-slips along the slo^ies, carrying away with them the 
"helm" or sand-oats, a species of grass planted on these slopes as a 
protection against the action of the wind upon the dry sand at the sur- 
face. 

As a means of promoting the accumulation of sand at the foot of the 
downs, rows of bundles of straw are planted and the cavities made in 
them by the force of the wind are closed with protections of reeds. 

During past centuries the barrier of sand-hills and the coast in gen- 
ial have been greatly encroached upon by the joint action of the 



THE ENGINEER SEC HON. 437 

waves aud the current, and especially the diminution of the coast of 
Korth Holland is fully exemplified by a comparison of the maj)s of the 
coasts of Helder and Huisduinen ,in 1571, of the Pettemer and Honds- 
bossche sea-dikes in 1730, and of Egmond aan Zee in 1686 and 1718, 
with those representing their condition in 1875. Since the beach has 
been efficiently protected against scour and the sea-dikes against the 
wash of the waves, their injurious effect is no longer discernible. 



Even the downs are thus artificially protected, but the dikes are in 
this respect the object of the greatest care, as they require the construc- 
tion of exx)ensive works in order to put them in a position effectually 
to withstand the effects of the currents and storm-tides. 

At places where strong currents run along the dikes, the beach must 
generally be artificially protected, even to a considerable extent below 
low water. A thick layer of heavy natural stone is the common pro- 
tection below the surface of the water. Where the bottom consists of 
loose substance, it is made to rest upon a mattress of fascines, ingeni- 
ously woven together and inclosed between fascine-ropes (see Protec- 
tion of river banks). Such a mattress is about 0"^.50 thick, and fitted by 
its construction to adapt itself to the irregularities of the bottom. 

Extensive submarine protections of this kind are made along the 
dikes in Zeeland, principally on either side of ^euzen, near Borselen, 
along the north side of the islands of South and North Beveland, near 
Stavenisse and along Schouwen Island, and also along the sea-dikes of 
Helder in i^orth Holland. These works require a yearly expenditure 
of several hundred thousands of guilders. 

Above the level of low water the protection against wash and scour 
consists of groins, constructed nearly at right angles to the direction of 
the current. They are from 100°^ to ISO*" long and from 100'^ to 250°^ 
apart. 

The north coast of the island of Oadzand ] the west and north coasts 
of Walcheren; the Oude Hoeve, on the Isle of Schouwen j the north 
coast of Goedereed ; the beach near Ter Heide, Hondsbossche, Petten, 
and Ylieland, are regularly protected in this manner for distances of sev- 
eral miles, and considering that each groin (constructed of fascines and 
pitche(J with stone a width of from 8"^ to 12"^) costs between 10,000 and 
15,000 guilders, it will be possible to form an idea of the large amounts 
already laid out and still continually exi)ended for the defense of the 
coast 

The body of the dikes, where not much exposed to wash, is protected 
by a so-called stroobelcramming. At i^laces where there is a broad or 
high beach, they are covered with fascines, with or without a pitching 
of stone, as the case may require. Sometimes the slopes are protected 
by a brick-on-edge paving. 

When the dikes are exposed to the storm-tides or to heavy waves break- 



438 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

ing upon them, or when the outer slope is rather steep on account of 
limited space, the facings of fascines and stone are strengthened by 
rows of piles, and sometimes the latter are mutually connected by 
walings. 

If practicable the outer slope is divided into two parts by a berm 
slightly sloping towards the sea. It is made at from 1™ to 4°^ above high- 
water level, from 5™ to 20^ wide, and covered by a revetment of sods. 

Upon the sea-dikes of the province of Zeeland alone, are laid about 
1,000,000 square meters of fascine protection, and 1,200,000 square meters 
of stone pitching, part of which must be renewed or repaired every year. 
This maintenance involves a yearly outlay of more than 600,000 guilders* 
The principal sea- dikes of the country are the Westkapel dike in 
Zeeland, and the Hondsbossche, the Pettemer, and the Helder dikes in 
I^orth Holland. 

The Westkapel dike is 3,800°^ long. It is exposed to the winds rang- 
ing between southeast and north. The rise and fall of the tides is 3"". 50. 
It has for the greater part an outward slope of 12 to 13 J to 1, and reaches 
from 5™ to oj™ aliove high-water level. It is protected, from low water 
to between 0™.50 and 1™.50 above high water, by fascines with stoue 
pitching, and higher up to between 2".50 and i'^.lO above high water by 
stroohelramming. Part of it is provided with rows of piles constructed 
by walings. 

The Hondsbossche and Pettemer sea-dikes, constructed at places where 
the natural barrier of downs in North Holland is interrupted, are to- 
gether about 5,500"^ long. They face the northwest, and the fall and 
rise of the tides at that spot is 1"^.50. The outer slope of the former, 
having a length of 4,500™, will be entirely covered, in the course of 
a year, by a pitching of basalt, which is to reach from 1°^.50 below to 
4™ above high water. This slope is of 7 to 9 to 1, and has a berm at 
its foot 6™ w ide, pitched with stone. Between the basalt and the top, 
over a space 2"\50 wide, the slope is also covered with a pitching of 
flat unhewn stones; above this slope, which has a width of 37™, there 
is a turfed berm 24™ wide, slightly sloping up to 5™ above high w ater, 
and then an earthen dike reaching to 6™ above high water. 

The construction of this artificial protection, which took place in the 
years 1872 to 1875, has absorbed an expense of nearly 2,000,000 guilders. 
The Pettemer sea-dike is protected in the same manner as the Honds- 
bossche, with only the following modifications: that the berm is from 
l™.2o to 2™. 50 above high water; that the stone x)itching is carried up 
on the slope of the dike above the berm to 5™ above high water; and 
that the berm itself has a stone pitching with three rows of piles be- 
tween it, for breaking the waves. 

The Helder sea-dike runs along the north point of the province of 
North Holland and the naval establishments situated there. It faces 
the north, and the fall and rise of the tides is about 1™.15 in that neigh- 
borhood. It is 4,575™ long, and its top, which is 8™ wide, reaches 



THE ENGIXEER SECTION. 439 

from 3°\64 to 5™ above high water. The outer slope is of about 5 J to 1, 
and is covered from the level of low water to the top by a stone pitch- 
ing, at places 35°^ wide, and extending over an area of about 130,000 
square meters. There are twelve groins of fascines projecting from the 
dike over the beach, and the bottom, which lies at a depth of from 22°^ 
to 37°^, close to the dike, is protected against scour by a thick layer of 
heavv stones. 



NORWAY. 

GEOLOGiriAL SURVEY OF SOUTHERN NORWAY. 

Director, Th. Kjerulf, Christiania. 
(Maps and specimens of minerals. ) 

In a notice of this kind it is not possible to give even a partial ac- 
count of the geology of a countr^^, so it will be confined to a short his- 
torj" of the condition and extent of the survey. 

The geological survey of Norway was commenced in 1858, according 
to a plan sketched by Th. Kjerulf (p. t. professor of mineralogy and 
geology at the University of Christiania) in conjunction with his colla- 
borator, and was placed by the home department under the direction of 
Kjerulf and Telief Dahl (p. t. mining master). 

The work is conducted on the base of the geographical survey maps. 
The two or three summer months are employed in traveling, and during 
this time, every year since 1858, expeditions have been made, as well 
by the directors mentioned as by several other gentlemen engaged for 
traveling. Maps are published on a scale of -^-qwo^, and there also has 
been commenced the publication of detail maps on a scale of jo^oiroj 
using the geographical survey rectangular maps as a base. The large 
manuscript map is composed of the district maps stmhTod- 

The institution has hitherto, from motives of economy, not had any 
special bureau. The numerous specimens collected have been deposited 
in the mineralogical cabinet at Christiania, and various synopsis and de- 
tails have been published in existing journals. 

The mountains of Norway consist principally of granite, gneiss, and 
syenite 5 in the eastern part are found slate and limestone. 

The following minerals are worked and are important in the order 
named — pyrites, copper ore, iron ore, silver ore, nickel ore. Magnetic 
and titanic iron ores have been found; lead and zinc appear in places, 
also traces of gold and ot coal ; borings for the latter are now being made 
both in the north and south of Norway. 



440 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



BRIDGES. 

The exhibit of models and drawings of bridges is more extensive than 
that of any other kind of engineering; there is hardly any country that 
does not show its proficiency in this branch of the art, especially the 
United States, which, in the rooms of the American Society of Civil 
Engineers, exemplifies, by drawings or models, nearly every kind of 
bridge made. 

For several reasons it was not possible nor even advisable to fully 
describe this branch of engineering. It would have taken time to the 
exclusion of more important matter. As drawings would be required, it 
would entail considerable expense. Bridge-building is generally con- 
fined to specialists, and it is but seldom that it is undertaken by the 
Government or superintended by officers of the Corps of Engineers. I 
have therefore confined myself to short descriptions of a few of the 
more notable bridges. 

MODEL OF POINT BRIDaB ACROSS THE MONON&AHELA. RIVER, AT 

PITTSBURGH. PA. 

EXHIBITED BY THE AMERICAN BRIDGE COMPANY, CHICAGO. 

(Scale of model, one sixty-fourth of the full size of the bridge.) 

The model represents a stiffened chain suspension bridge with a cen- 
ter span of 800 feet, which is now in process of construction across the 
MonoDgahela Eiver at Pittsburgh, Pa. The bridge was designed by 
Edward Hemberle, engineer of the American Bridge Company, which 
company are now building the bridge at a cost of $450,000. 

The center span is 800 feet from center to center of towers, and the 
side spans are 145 leet each in the clear. The height of the towers above 
low water is 180 feet, and the deflection of the chain is 88 feet. The 
roadway is 20 feet wide, with double tramways and one track for a nar- 
row-gauge railway ; outside of the roadway are sidewalks 6 feet wide 
each. The piers and anchorages are founded upon timber platforms 
sunk to gravel bed. The masonry is of best quality Baden sandstone. 

The superstructure will be the first example of a stiffened chain sus- 
pension bridge of long span, and will differ considerably from others in 
existence. The chain is designed as a catenary, and will take up all the 
permanent load of the structure without bringing strains on the stiff- 
ening trusses. This object will be accomj)lished by erecting the bridge 
completely before connecting the ends of the straight top chords to the 
center joint. The tie-rods are provided with turn-buckles, and will be 
so adjusted as to be strained under moving loads only. When the 



7^11 E ENGINEER SECTION. 



441 




442 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

bridge is half loaded the top chords of the trusses oa the loaded side 
will be in compressiou, and of the unloaded side in tension. The max- 
imum strains for the different members of the trusses occur under dif- 
ferent positions of the moving load. 

There are lateral and vibration braces between the top chords and 
also between the chains, proportioned to take up the strains from wind 
pressure upon chains and trusses. The floor is 34 feet wide between 
the roadway girders, which are 8 feet high, forming the handrails. The 
roadway girders have expansion joints every 100 feet and are suspended 
from the chains by flat bars 20 feet apart. At the expansion joints there 
are struts instead of suspenders in order to make a rigid connection be- 
tween the roadway trusses and the chains. Cross-girders, 3 feet in 
depth, connect the stiffening girders every 20 feet, and support two lines 
of iron stringers. The stringers and the roadway trusses form the beams 
across which are placed the wooden joists for the flooring. The lateral 
stiffness of the floor is secured by a double system of tie-rods, and the 
wind pressure will be taken up by horizontal gteel-wire cables placed 
under and connected to the floor. The towers are entirely of wrought 
iron, except the bases of the columns. The chains are carried over the 
top of the tower on wrought-iron chairs or saddles, which are movable 
on rollers to allow for expansion and the elongation of the back chains 
under strain. 

The bridge is proportioned for a moving load of 1,600 pounds per lin- 
eal foot, under which, together with the weight of structure, the chains 
will be strained to 12,000 pounds per square inch, sectional area. The 
suspenders and roadway members are strained only from 8,000 i)ounds 
to 10,000 pounds per square inch. The maximum compressive strains 
in the towers are 9,000 pounds per square inch. 

The bridge Avill be finished by the end of this year (1876). 

KEYSTONE BRIDaE COMPANY, PITTSBURGH, PA. 

This company exhibits a beautiful nickel-plated working model of 
the Raritan Bay Pivot Bridge, at South Amboy. This model represents 
a span 472 feet in length, weighing 600 tons, with engine and hydraulic 
machinery complete. This is the longest pivot-span in the world. 

Previous to 1860 pivot-bridges were generally constructed of two dis- 
connected spans sustained by guys depending from a central tower, or 
with guys to aid in stiffening wooden trusses. 

In this bridge and in the Keokuk bridge these accessories were 
omitted, the trusses being designed to be self-supporting when revolved 
on the pivot center. This method of construction now prevails almost 
exclusively. The accompanying illustration, taken from the Keokuk 
bridge, shows a pivot- span 387 feet long. 



THE EXGIXEER SECTIOX. 



443 




444 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

AQUEDUCT OF ROQUEFAVOUR, ON THE ARC. 

CANAL FROM THE DURANCK TO MVKSEILLES. 

(Model and drawing. ) 

This aqueduct was constructed for the canal from the Durance to 
Marseilles, and is 393°^ in length. There are three stages of arches, of 
which the first comprises twelve arches of 15™ span ; the second, fifteen 
arches of 16'^j the third, fifty-three small arches of 5°^. 

The piers are strengthened by counterforts, the breadth of which 
they exceed by 1°^.60 in the middle and 2"^ iu the lower stage. 

A small gallery with a semicircular arch of 3"\30 span is formed im- 
mediately above the extrados of the first arches, and below the first 
platform, and gives access to the work at its level, either in the gal- 
lery or on the platform, by means of openings made in the piers, 1™ by 
2°^. A similar gallery, V^ by 2°^.50, not arched, is also established above 
the second row of arches and is comprised between their extrados and 
the level of the second platform. 

For carrying the materials, uprights were fixed at the four angles of 
each pier, resting on two horizontal beams resting on brackets, and 
staged every 3°^ in the height of the pier. These uprights support a 
scaffolding, to which they were joined by a system of ties, braces, and 
struts, and on the upper beams of this scaffolding a movable winch was 
placed, capable of raising blocks of 6 cubic meters, weighing as much 
as 15 tons. In proportion as a pier was raised 3™, it was necessary to 
raise all the parts of the scaffolding, the supports, and the crane. By 
means of four jack-screws, with screws of 4*^^50 placed at the angles of 
the pier, this operation was safely accomplished in less than four hours, 
including the placing of the screws id position, each of them weighing 
more than 2 tons. 

During their construction all the piers were connected by a continuous 
railway, supported by a series of service-bridges between them. These 
were easily raised according to the elevation of the masonry. Two sup- 
plementary lines were also established, one on the level of the pas- 
sage formed in the piers, and the other about 2"^ above it. They con- 
sisted of two beams thrown from one pier to the other, and strengthened 
by struts and uprights resting on the top of the centers. These arrange- 
ments allowed the piers and arches to be built at the same time, each 
division of the work having its lifting machinery, &c., independently 
of the other. By this method nearly 2,000 cubic meters of masonry 
per month were executed, and this work included the raising blocks 
of 8,000 kilograms to a height of 70°^. 

The cost of the work, most of which was not performed by contract, 
amounted to 37,000,000 francs, about 177 francs per square meter of ele- 
vation. 

This work was planned and constructed from 1841 to 1847 by M. de 
Montricher, engineer-m-chief '' des Fonts et Chaussees." 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 445 

BRIDGE, EITHER DRAW-BRIDGE OR SWING-BRIDGE AT DISCRETION, 

AT MARSEILLES. 

This bridge has a double action, one of rotation, as in most movable 
bridges, the other of raising ttos flap {volee). The complete rotation of 
the bridge is required for vessels, but the passage of barges is effected 
by partially raising it, which is accomplished in less time than the 
rotation. By this double arrangement much time is saved in the succes. 
sive interruptions of the traffic on the bridge. 

The length of the iron bay of the bridge is 41™.09, and its breadth 
is 8^, comprising a line of rails, a carriage-way, and two foot- ways. 

When the bridge is closed it rests on fixed blocks placed on four 
points of its length, also on the tops of the two quays of the passage, 
under the cross-beam and the second upright of the breech. In this posi- 
tion the friction-rollers are separated from the circular rail on which 
they turn by a space of 3™. 

The maneuvers are accomplished by means of a water-pressure of 52 
atmospheres. 

The water is introduced into a vertical hydraulic press, the piston 
of which, placed a little out of the center of gravity of the flooring in re- 
lation to the breech, assists in raising the bridge, and also serves as a 
pivot for its rotation. 

When the piston rises, the bridge, being raised, turns round in the 
horizontal direction, by the aid of the breech friction-rollers, until these 
latter have descended sufficiently to bear upon the rail. From this 
moment it is the horizontal hinge of the flooring which forms the 
new support, and detaches itself from the nearest blocks, as it had 
previously detached itself from the others. 

For the rotation, the rising of the pivot is arrested at 20*^™. For 
raising the bridge completely, it can be elevated to 90^"^. The gradient 
of the flooring is 'then 68™™ per meter, and the clear height between the 
average water-level and the bottoct of the flap or fly {volee) is 4™.(i0 at 
its extremity, while the height of the lower end is only 1™.80. 

The diameter of the piston is 0™.85, and its length 2™, so that when it 
rises to the full extent there is still a length of 1™.10 on the press. 

All the maneuvers are executed with the greatest facility, by one 
man at the engine, and from a place close to his lodging he can man- 
age the working of the bridge. 

The weight of this bridge is 300 tons, and it rests on a stone pier 6™ 
in diameter, founded on the rock by means of a caisson with compressed 
air, at a depth of 14™ below ebb-tides. 

Francs. 

The total outlay was 316,000 

For the bay, not including the masonry of the approaches 250, 000 

For the foundation pier 66, 000 

Total 316,000 



446 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 




THE ENGIXEER SECTIOX. 447 

PORTLAND AND OTHER CEMENTS, AND THE ARTIFICIAL 

STONE, 

EXHIBITED AT THE INTERXATIOXAL EXHIBITION IX PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 

Notes by Q. A. Gillmore, lieuteDatit-colonal, Corps of Engineers, brevet major-general 

U. S. A. 

CALCAREOUS CEMENTS. 

This term in its most comi)rehensive sense embraces all the articles 
usually employed as the cementing material or matrix in the mason's 
art, and therefore includes common lime, hydraulic lime, and hydraulic 
cement. 

COMMON LIME. 

No descriptive definition of common lime is deemed necessary here, 
and there is nothing connected with the contributions of this material 
by exhibitors calling for special mention as evidences of progress in its 
manufacture except what may more properly be referred to in the de- 
scription of the recent improvements in kilns used for burning lime, ce- 
ments, and the products of the ceramic art, which will be contained in the 
final report to the bureau of awards. 

HYDRAULIC LIME. 

Hydraulic lime is obtained by burning and slaking an impure lime- 
stone containing 12 to 20 per cent of silica, or clay in which silica pre- 
dominates. If silica only, or a clay containing very little alumina be 
present, the product is called siliceous hydraulic lime, and when other- 
wise, argillaceous hydraulic lime. 

The slaking is usually done b^^ the sprinkling process. A species of 
hydraulic lime is also produced by burning and slaking some of the 
varieties of argillo-magnesian limestones. They are less valuable than 
those derived from the siliceous and argillaceous limestones. The hy- 
draulic lime of Teil, on exhibition, is manufactured from the quarries of 
siliceous limestone at Teil, canton of Yiviers, department of Ardeche 
France. These quarries have been worked for several centuries. They 
belong to the lower neocomian marls of the cretaceous formation. The 
stone contains from 80 to 81 per cent, of carbonate of lime, about 13 
per cent, of silica, and a little less than 2 per cent, of alumina, the other 
ingredients being less than 2 per cent, each of the carbonates of mag- 
nesia and iron, and a little sand. The stone is burnt with coal in con- 
tinuous or perpetual kilns, at a heat just sufficient to expel the car- 
bonic acid without vitrifying any part of the stone, and when drawn is 
spread out in thin layers and sprinkled with water from a hose. The 
sprinkled lime falls into powder and is then shoveled into heaps and the 
slaking completed by the aid of the steam evolved. It remains in 



448 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

these heaps for about ten days, and is then passed through a screen 
made with ^o. 40 brass wire, 50 to the linear inch each way. The pro- 
duct thus obtained is the hydraulic lime of Teil. The residue, which 
does not pass through the screen, consisting of particles of various sizes, 
from that of a small pea and under, is made up of free lime and the com- 
pounds of silica, alumina, and lime, but they do not contain sufficient 
free lime to cause slaking in the presence of water. This residue, when 
reduced to powder by grinding, constitutes the natural Portland cement 
exhibited by Messrs. Pavin de Lafarge and Messrs Soullier and Brunot. 
Both of these establishments also exhibit the Teil hydraulic lime. 

The current prices delivered at Marseilles are, for the lime, 32 francs, 
and for the Portland cement 50 francs per ton of 2,240 pounds, in sacks, 
the sacks to be returned to the manufacturer. If packed in barrels the 
lime is 48 francs per ton and the cement 65 francs. 

The works of Messrs. Pavin de Lafarge are located on the bank of the 
river Rbone, at the base of the opened quarries. They contain thirty- 
four continuous lime-kilas, each having a daily capacity of 130 cubic 
yards of lime. The aggregate daih' consumption of coal is 100 tons. 
The establishment also contains thirty screens, thirty-one pairs of mill- 
stones, five steam-engines, one water-wheel, and is well supplied with 
all other appliances, such as trucks, cranes, weighing-scales, &c., for 
handling the lime. It gives employment to six hundred men, and 
manufactures its own fire-brick, above 2,000 tons annually, for lining 
the kilns. 

The average annual production of the works is 100,000 tons (2,240 
pounds) of the screened lime, and 10,000 tons of Portland cement. 

In the organization and management of the business ample provision 
seems to have been made for promoting the health and comfort of the 
workmen, and for encouraging habits of industry and thrift. 

For the men without families quarters are provided, where meals are 
served a la carte on checks or counters supplied by the overseer on ac- 
count of each man's monthly pay, and the scale of prices is such that a 
prudent man can live at a cost of 25 to 30 cents per day, including a 
moderate allowance of common wine. This for three meals per day. The 
men are lodged and provided with beds for about 1 cent each per day. 
Of the six hundred workmen, two hundred and fifty are unmarried and 
are provided for in this manner. 

The men with families are quartered near by in a village belonging 
to the company, in which there is a grocery, a bakery, and a clothing 
store, where all the workmen are allowed to supply themselves. Pro- 
visions are advanced on credit, without charging the consumer with 
interest. 

A savings bank is provided, in which the workmen may deposit their 
money in any sum from 1 franc to 1,500 francs, upon which 4J per cent, 
interest per annum is allowed. In March, 1876, the bank contained 
60,000 francs belonging to employes. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



449 



A sick fund, presided over by tbe heads of the firm, aided by a com- 
mittee of mauagement, composed of clerks aud workmen, is maintained 
by retaining 1^ per cent, of the earned wages, to which the establish- 
ment itself contributes a sum equal to one-fifth of the amount retained 
from the men. From this fund pensions are paid to the aged workmen 
and to the widows of workmen, and assistance is given to the sick dur- 
ing their absence from the works. 

A hospital is provided for men without families when sick; a school- 
house for the children, and a church and minister are also provided. 

HYDRAULIC CEMENTS. 

The hydraulic cements after burning do not, like the lime, slake in 
the presence of water, and have, therefore, to be reduced to pow der by 
grinding. They may all be arranged in two comprehensive classes, viz: 
First. The heavy, stone-setting cements, both natural and artificial, pro- 
duced at a high heat. - This class embraces the Portland and the Yicat 
cements, but as the difference between the two rests more upon a single, 
although distinctive, variation in the process of manufacture than upon 
the character of the cement produced, it is deemed proper for the pur- 
poses of this brief description to include both under the general desig- 
nation of Portland cement. 

" Second. The light, quick-setting, natural cements, such as the Greno- 
ble, the Eosendale, and other Eoman cements. 

PORTLAND CEMENT. 

Portland cement is produced by burning, with a heat of great inten- 
sity and duration, sufficient to induce incipient vitrification, certain 
argillaceous limestones, or calcareous clays, or an artificial mixture of 
carbonate of lime and clay, or of lime and clay, and then reducing the 
burnt material to powder by grinding. 

There are four methods of making this cement represented in the ex- 
hibition. They will be briefly described, although some of the manu- 
facturers expressly declined to furnish the information asked for con- 
cerning the details of their process, Avhile others have not responded tp 
the inquiries addressed to them on the subject. Enough is known, how- 
ever, with resx)ect to the materials employed and the treatment to which 
they are subjected, in the several modes of manufacture, to enable those 
who have given the subject any considerable attention, to understand 
their essential and distinctive features. 

First method. — By this method the cement is produced by burning at 
a high heat an argillaceous limestone containing from 77 to 80 per cent, 
ot carbonate of lime and 20 to 23 per cent, of clay, and then grinding 
the burnt material to a fine powder between millstones. 

The stone should be a homogeneous and intimate mixture of its con- 
stituent ingredients, and the clay in it should contain at least IJ 
parts of silica to 1 of alumina. There are generally present, also, car- 
29 CEN 



450 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

bonate of magnesia and oxide of iron in small quantities, and some- 
times a small percentage of the alkaline comi)ounds, but the stones 
should contain not less that 94 per cent, of the essential ingredients — the 
carbonate of lime and clay — in order to yield a Portland cement of first 
quality. The presence of carbonate of magnesia becomes seriously ob- 
jectionable when the amount exceeds 2J to 3 per cent. 

Lnlj^ two localities are represented by this method of manufacturing 
Portland cement: Teil, in France, and Coplay, in the United States, near 
AUentown, Pa. The Teil cement is produced in the process of mak- 
ing the hydraulic lime of that locality, as already described. 

The Ooplay Cement Company exhibits three brands of cement, viz, 
Saylor's Portland cement, Coplay hydraulic cement, and Anchor hydrau- 
lic cement, all made from an argillaceous limestone quarried at Coplay 
about 6 miles from AUentown. The two last named are light, quick-set- 
ting cements. 

For several years the Coplay hydraulic cement, which is good |of its 
class, has been made from this stone by burning it in perpetual kilns, 
at a lower heat than necessary to produce good Portland cement. 

In making the Anchor cement, a certain proportion of the raw stone 
is ground up with the cement to give it a darker color. This stone is 
not a homogeneous mixture of the constituent ingredients, and when 
burnt at the high or long-continued heat which Portland cement re- 
quires, it yields a heterogeneous mixture, containing Portland cement, 
common quick-setting cement, and common and hydraulic lime. 

In the process followed in making Taylor's Portland cement, the raw 
stone is first finely ground between millstones, in order to obtain a 
homogeneous mixture of the ingredients. It is then tempered stiffly 
with water, and formed into lumps or balls of irregular shape, of from 
3 to 5 pounds' weight, which after partial drying are burnt at a high heat 
in upright intermittent kilns, in layers alternating with layers of an- 
thracite coal, about sixteen days being consumed in charging, burning, 
cooling, and drawing: the kiln. 

The establishment contains three kilns for burning the Portland ce- 
ment, and four for the light cements, with ample grinding power driven 
by steam. The largest production in any one year has been 52,000 bar- 
rels (of 300 pounds) of the light cements. The present yearly capacity 
is 70,000 barrels of the light cements, and 12,000 barrels (of 400 pounds 
net) of Portland cement. When running full, employment is given to 
fifty men and boys. 

At Seille, France, Portland cement is made by a mode similar to that 
pursued at Teil, but none of it is on exhibition, and no further reference 
will be made to it. 

Second method. — Argillaceous chalk of the same composition as the 
natural stone above mentioned is used for making cement by the sec- 
ond method, and either the " wet process'^ or the "dry process" may be 
followed. 



THE EXGIXEER SECTIOX. 



451 



By the wet process the clay is mixed up with a large quantity of 
water, in a circular wash-mill provided with heavy iron harrows at- 
tached to the horizontal arms of a vertical revolving shaft, to secure a 
thorough reduction of the more solid particles to an impalpable paste. 
When a thorough and intimate mixture is thus effected, the semi liquid 
mass is conducted away to large open reservoirs, where it is left to settle. 
The clear water as it rises to the surface, or as the iieavier materials 
subside, is drained off, and the raw cement which remains is allowed to 
become partially dry and hard by the evaporation produced by exposure 
to the atmosphere. 

While the mixture is in the reservoirs, samples of it are taken from 
time to time and made into cement in sample kilns, to verify the correct- 
ness of the proportions of carbonate of lime and clay. If any error in 
this particular is discovered, it is corrected by washing in new material 
containing an excess of the deficient ingredient, or sometimes by mix. 
ing together the contents of two or more reservoirs. 

When the raw cement has attained, by drying, the consistency of very 
stiff" clay, it is turned up to the air b}^ shovelfuls, and after further dry- 
ing, to about the condition of bricks when ready for the kiln, it is burned. 
Large ovens are generally used for drying the mixture in extensive works. 

By the dry process the calcareous clay is ground up in a circular mill 
under edge runners, with just sufficient water to render it somewhat 
softer than masons' mortar, and is then partially dried by natural or 
artificial means, preferably- in large shallow pans, or upon a drying floor 
underlaid with steam or hot-air flues. When it has become sufficiently 
stiff', it is molded into irregular-shaped balls by hand, or passed through 
a brick-making machine, and is then further dried to the condition suit- 
able for burning. In burning, the material requires to be subjected for 
several hours to a heat sufficient to produce incipient vitrification, in 
either perpetual or intermittent kilns. Throughout Europe the prevail- 
ing custom is to burn with gas-coke, or anthracite coal, in upright, bell- 
shaped, intermittent kilns, the raw cement and the fuel being placed in 
the kiln in alternate layers and fired from below. The kiln is charged 
through side doors which are kept tightly closed during the process of 
burning. The burnt cement called "clinker" is of a dark-greenish 
color, and the pieces are much shrunken and contorted from the effects 
of the heat. 

The only locality known to the writer to furnish the material for 
making Portland cement by the second method is near Boulogne-sur- 
Mer, France, where the extensive establishment of Messrs. Lonquety 
& Co. is engaged in this important growing industry. The raw mate- 
rial employed is found in the inferior cretaceous formation and con- 
sists of an argillaceous chalk, containing from 76 to 82 per cent, of car- 
bonate of lime and from 18 to 24 per cent, of clay. The deposit is 
sufficiently soft to be excavated with a jnck ar.d shovel. The chalk 
is first reduced to a very liquid paste by the wet process. It is then 



452 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

carried to the mixing apparatus, where a small percentage of certain 
other ingredients, of which the exact character and amount are not 
known to the public, is incorporated with it. The paste is then con- 
veyed to large reservoirs where a partial drying ensues, which is sub- 
sequently finished in drying kilns. It is then burnt in intermittent 
upright kilns with anthracite coal or coke, and at once ground and 
packed in barrels for market. 

The company began manufacturing in 1856, and the amount of capi- 
tal now invested in the business exceeds $500,000. The principal w orks 
are at Morals, in Boulogne, which contain 30 kilns for burning the ce- 
ment, 84 drying ovens, and 24 sets of millstones ; and when running 
to their full capacity produce 70,000 tons (of 2,204 pounds) of Portland 
cement annually, and give employment to 637 workmen. The company 
carry on less extensive works at Ohatillons in Boulogne, and also at 
[Nesles, near the city, where the quarries which supply the argillaceous 
chalk are located. At these 2 works 14 cement kilns and 8 drying ovens 
are operated, and 184 men employed. The aggregate yearly capacity 
of the three works is 100,000 tons of cement. 

TMrd metJiod. — The third method yields an artificial Portland cement 
by mixing together the carbonate of lime and clay. It is especially 
adapted to localities where chalk or soft marl abounds, although it is 
also ai)plicable where the compact limestones have to be employed. 
Any pure or nearly pure limestone will answer, although it is well to 
remtimber that the large consumption of power involved in the reduc- 
tion of the hard carbonates to powder places them under a disadvantage 
which practically excludes their use in regions which supply chalk or 
tender marl. Suitable clay is of much more rare occurrence than suit- 
able limestone, for the reason that it must contain the silica alumina in 
a certain condition of commission and in certain proportions. Other- 
wise it will not produce good Portland cement. These conditions are 
sometimes imposed by mixing two or more clays together. 

When the calcareous ingredient is chalk, the wet process already de- 
scribed is usually followed, but the chalk, especially if it contains flint, 
should not be allowed to mingle with the clay until it passed a tine wire 
sieve. 

All the English Portland cements are made by the wet process with 
a mixture of either the white or the gray chalk, and clay procured from 
the shores or dredged from the bottom of the Thames or Med way. These 
are pulverized and mixed together in a circular wash-mill, and subse- 
quently treated in the manner already described for the second method. 

One manufactory is located at Birkenhead, and there are several on 
the Thames in the neighborhood of London. Those represented in the 
exhibition are Francis & Co., Hollick & Co., A. H. Lavers, the Would- 
ham Cement Company, and Eoasswood & Co., all of London. 

Eoasswood & Co. exhibit specimens of cement formed into shape for 
testing, but no cement powder, and as the age and history of the speci- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 453 

meDS are not given, it has been impossible to ascertain its strength and 
hardness at any given age, or to fix with any certainty its comparative 
value. The specimen briquettes are dense and hard, and it may per- 
haps be assumed that the cement of which they are made is of good 
standard quality. 

Francis & Co. employ two hundred men, and their works have a 
yearly production capacity of 20,000 to 30,000 gross tons. It is expected 
that the capacity will be more than doubled during the present year by 
additional works of which the company is about to take possession. 

The Parian cements manufactured and exhibited by Francis & Co. 
are of two grades, the superfine quality and the second quality. They 
are both of superior excellence and strength. The base of all Parian 
cements is calcined gypsum. They are suitable for interior use only, 
and are not hydraulic. 

The Wouldham Cement Company operate sixteen kilns, and six sets 
of millstones, producing about 18,000 tons of Portland cement annually, 
and giving employment to about two hundred and fifty workmen. The 
sjjecimen exhibited stands high on the list for crushing strength. 

A well-known manufacturer of Portland and Parian cements, in Lon- 
don, in reply to inquiries addressed to him on the subject, estimates 
that there are from thirty to forty cement manufacturers in Great Brit- 
ain, that the capital employed in the business cannot be far short of 
£1,500,000 sterling, and the total annual production 650,000 to 700,000 
tons, giving employment to about five thousand men. This includes 
all descriptions of cement, the Portland, Eoman, Parian, and Keene. 
The total quantity produced other than Portland is comparatively 
small. 

Sweden is represented by an artificial Portland cement manufactured 
after this method by the Scanian Cement Company (limited) from the 
cretaceous chalk and clay at Lomma, near Malmo. It is made by 
the wet process, and burnt with coke made on the spot from English 
coal. The German upright kilns are used, and they are fired intermit- 
tently. Brick-making and the quarrying of limestone for exportation 
are carried on by the same company. All the work of the establish- 
ment is done by the job or piece, and gives employment to from three 
to four hundred men. No women are employed. 

The x>roduction of 1874 was valued at $138,900 gold, and comprised 
16,000 barrels of Portland cement, 5,000,000 pieces of bricks, roofing 
and drain tiles, and 610,000 cubic feet of quarried limestone. In 1875, 
38,000 pounds of Portland cement were produced. 

A sick-fund and a library have been established for the benefit of the 
workmen. 

With hard limestone the dry process is usually adopted, the raw ma- 
terials, the stone and the clay, being first kiln-dried at 212° F. or above, 
in order to expel moisture and prevent caking in the mill, and other- 
wise facilitate grinding and sifting. After being dried, the two are 



454 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

mixed together in suitable i)roportioiiS already indicated and reduced 
to tine powder. One kind of machine will not suffice for grinding the 
raw materials economically. In some of the German manufactories three 
ure used, viz: (1) a stone-crushing machine, which crushes the mate- 
rials in pieces not larger than a walnut ; (2) a further reduction is secured 
by a vertical mill or edge-runner; and (3) it is then ground between hori- 
zontal millstones to a powder of which 90 per cent, should pass a wire 
screen of 80 fine wires to the lineal iuch. 

The powdered material is then tempered to a stiff paste in a brick 
machine and formed into bricks of a suitable size for burning, the mix- 
ture being kept warm with coils of steam pipes during this process. 
In some cases the liquid used for tempering is not pure water, but a 
mixture formed by adding to 100 parts of water from 3 to 6 parts of 
calcined soda, and 5 to 6 parts of newly burnt slaked chalk or lime, 
which is kept hot by coils of steam pipes. The burning takes place at 
a high heat as prescribed for the natural cement. 

The Wampum Cement and Lime Company (limited) of Newcastle, 
Lawrence County, Pennsylvania, exhibit a Portland cement manu- 
factured by the dry i^rocess from an artificial mixture of fossil lime- 
stone and clay. Both are ground to powder and mixed in the proper 
proportions with water formed into bricks, dried in ovens, and then 
burnt with coke at a high heat in intermittent kilns. 

The works have been started within the past year and contain at 
present but one kiln and one run of stone. They have been planned 
for a capacity of 30,000 barrels per year, but cannot produce more than 
10,000 barrels with the existing appliances. 

William McKay, of Ottawa, Canada, exhibits a cement made in a 
sample kiln, with a mixture of shell-marl, clay, and carbonate of soda. 
The marl and clay are first dried and finely pulverized separately. 
Fifty parts of the clay are then mixed with 57 parts of limewater, 3 
parts of the carbonate of soda, and one part of extract of wood ashes. 
With this clay mixture, while hot, 120 parts of the pulverized marl is 
thoroughly incorporated. This is then properly dried and burnt in any 
suitable kiln. The cement has as yet been manufactured only experi- 
mentally. The essential ingredients, the marl and the clay, are said 
to exist in abundance near Kingston, Canada. In tensile and com- 
pressive strength this cement compares favorably with the Portland 
cement of medium quality. 

Fourth method. — In the fourth method the carbonate of lime is burnt 
and slaked before the clay is added, and the proportions are correspond- 
ingly varied by making the proper allowance for the loss of weight at 
this first burning. In the incorporation of the ingredients and the pre- 
paration of the mixture for the kiln, either the dry or the wet process 
may be followed, in the final burning, however, the heat need not be 
continued so long as has been found necessary in the first, second, and 
third methods, inasmuch as the carbonate of lime has i)reviously been 
reduced to quick lime at the first burning. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 455 

The celebrated Yicat cement., exhibited by an importer and therefore 
not deemed entitled to an award, is i^roduced by this method in France. 
It is considered to be superior in quality to the average Portland ce- 
ments manufactured from carbonate of lime and clay, and commands 
a correspondingly higher price in all markets where it is known. The 
specimen exhibited did not fully justify this opinion of the merits of 
the Vicat cement. 

This company have secured the use of one of the Bosendale cement 
manufactories and are prepared to turn all the resources of the estab- 
lishment upon the production of Portland cement should the demand 
justify such a course. The works contain ample grinding power driven 
by steam, and the special mixing and drying apparatus required in 
this process have been introduced. 

The Portland cement exhibited by Messrs. Toepffer, Grawitz & Co., 
of Stettin, Ge^man3^ is also made from an artificial mixture of lime 
and clay, and justifies by its excellence the opinion heretofore ex- 
pressed that this method of obtaining cement, if properly followed, 
will generally produce an article superior to that made with carbonate 
of lime and clay. 

The Stettin cement is burnt in large periodical upright kilns with coal 
or coke. The establishment operates fourteen of these kilns, employs six 
hundred men, and annually produces from 130,000 to 200,000 barrels of 
cement of 440 pounds gross weight. 

Borst and Roggenkamp, of Delfzijl, in the Netherlands, exhibit a 
Portland cement of good medium quality, but no particulars with regard 
to the materials and process employed in its manufacture were supplied. 
The works were started in 1870, employ fifteen workmen, grind with a 
20-horse-power engine, and produce about 5,000 gross tons annually. 
One-fifth of the entire production is exported. 

Eussia is represented by the Portland and Eoman cements of 0. A. 
Schmidt, of Eiga. Both articles are creditable to the manufacturer. 
]N"o detailed information concerning the process of manufacture could be 
procured. The yearly production of both kinds amounts to 60,000 pounds, 
for which about $300,000 is realized in the markets. 

Some Portland cement labeled Bruno Hofmark, Port Kund, Estland, 
Eussia, was also received and tested, and some cement tiles similarly 
marked were found to be very hard, strong, and well molded. No in- 
formation with respect to the magnitude of the works or the raw 
materials used, or the process followed in the manufacture, could be 
procured. 

The catalogued exhibit of Y. B. Levin, Government of Eostland, Port 
Hund, near Wesenberg, could not be found, and nothing was known of 
it by the person in charge of the other Eussian cements. 

From Italy two hydraulic cements and some cement tiles are exhibited 
by the Societa anonima per la fabbricazione del cemento, &c., Proviu- 
cia di Eeggio-Emilia. Both articles possess merit and are creditable 
to the manufacturer. The cements rank as light cements of fair quality. 



456 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

From France some cement tiles and a cement catalogued as Portland 
cement are exhibited by the Societe anonyme des chaux eminemment 
hydraulique de 1' Homme d'Armes, pres Montelimar, but no information 
in detail concerning the process of manufacture could be obtained. 

THE LIGHT, QUICK-SETTING, NATURAL CEMENTS. 

In the foregoing description some of the natural quick setting cements 
have been mentioned, because it was deemed best not to separate them 
from the Portland cement catalogued under the same number and ex- 
hibitor. 

The natural cements usually take the name of the place of manufact- 
ure. They are produced by burning at a heat sufiSicient to expel the 
carbonic acid certain argillaceous or siliceous limestones, containing 
less than 77 per cent, of carbonate of lime, or argillo-magnesian lime- 
stone containing less than 77 per cent, of both carbonates, and then 
grinding the product to a fine powder between millstones. They can 
be, and in France and England formerly were, produced artificially by 
burning a mixture of lime or carbonate of lime and clay, prior to the 
discovery of the process of making Portland cement by slightly varying 
the proportions of the ingredients and burning the mixture at a high 
heat. The superior qualities of the latter, producing as it does a mortar 
possessing about four times the strength at much less than twice the 
cost oi the light, quick-setting, artificial cements, gradually drove them 
from the market, and their manufacture soon ceased and has never been 
resumed. 

It is not expected, however, that the use of these natural cements will 
be superseded by that of the Portland. For certain purposes they are 
as necessary, not to say indispensable, at the present day as they were 
when their introduction revolutionized the former methods of executing 
submarine constructions in masonry, by taking the place of the feeble 
hydraulic mixtures made from hydraulic lime, trass, or natural or arti- 
ficial pozzolana. They possess sufficient strength for the purpose to 
which they are usually api^lied, viz, for massive concrete foundations, 
for the concrete hearting and backing of thick walls faced with ashlar, 
and as the means of conferring the hydraulic energy upon mortar for 
ordinary stone and brick masonry. At the same time it must be admit- 
ted that for similar purposes good Portland cement suitablj^ diluted 
with common lime in order to reduce it to the strength of the quick-set- 
ting natural cement is, in most localities, the least costly of the two. 

For concrete foundations laid green in water, these quick cements 
are almost invariably to be preferred in the hands of ordinary workmen 
for the obvious reason that most of them not only hold the sand by 
their unctions and adhesive properties more tenaciously than the Port- 
land cement, but their prompt induration arrests the washing effects of 
the water and prevents the progressive separation of the sand and cur- 



THE EXGINEER SECTION. 457 

rent before it has had time to proceed far enough to produce serious 
injury to the concrete. 

Most of the cements can be suitably burnt in any kiln, and by any 
method that will answer for common lime, although some of them re- 
quire a higher degree and a longer application of heat than will usually 
suffice for the pure or nearly pure carbonates. 

This type of hj'draulic cement makes a meager display at the exhibi- 
tion, and some of the best-known and most valuable brands — foreign 
and domestic — are not represented at all. It is somewhat remarkable, 
also, that, with one or two exceptions, no statistical information was sub- 
mitted, so that this report has to be prepared in great measure from 
data previously in the passesion of the writer. 

The Cumberland Hydraulic Cement and Manufacturing Company, of 
Cumberland, Md., exhibit, by their agent, S. M. Hamilton, Baltimore, 
Md., a barrel of their cement made from an argillo-magnesian limestone, 
quarried near Cumberland City, on Will's Creek, not far from its conflu- 
ence with the Potomac River. The stone is burnt in upright contin- 
uous kilns, in layers alternately with layers of coal. It is an excel- 
lent natural cement of the light active type, and may be made either 
quick or slow setting at pleasure, by mixing together in suitable pro- 
portions the products of different strata of the quarry. 

The establishment contains six upright continuous kilns, and the fuel 
used for burning is the semi-bituminous coal of Allegany County, Mary- 
land. Four pairs of French burr stones do the grinding. Provision is 
made for two additional pairs. A steam-engine furnishes ample power 
for the six sets of stone. A yearlj^ productive capacity of 400,000 bar- 
rels of 300 pounds each is claimed for the works. The greatest pro- 
duction in any one year was 150,000 pounds. The works give employ- 
ment to from twenty-five to thirty men. 

Charles Tremain, of Manlius, Onondaga County, New York, exhibits a 
light, quick-setting cement x>ossessing great merit, manufactured in the 
township of Manlius from the tentaculate or water limestone which 
overlies the Onondaga salt group 5 also some articles molded from a 
mixture of cement and sand, consisting of blocks of artificial stone, 
pieces of flagging, and ornamented architectural building blocks in dif- 
ferent colors, with leaves, fruit, and flowers in alto-relievo. The articles 
are well molded, hard, and tough, giving evidence of a good quality of 
the cementing ingredient emploj-ed. 

Some calcined gypsum for fertilizing purposes is exhibited by Mr. 
Tremain. This belongs to another group and is mentioned here simply 
because the two industries are carried on in one establishment and under 
one organization. The works contain thirteen kilns and four sets of 4j^ 
feet millstones, and produced in 1874 50,000 barrels, and in 1875 48,000 
barrels of cement. They give employment when running full to seventy 
men, while the plaster-works require from twenty to twenty-five men, 
according to the demand and production. The plaster interest of this 
establishment is one of the largest in the United States. 



458 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

The Allen Cement Company of Siegfried's Bridge, Penn., exhibit 
a light, qnick-settiiig cement made from anargillo-magnesian lime- 
stone of that neighborhood. The cement is of good quality and is an 
excellent representative of its type. It gave good results when tested, 
and, from the testimony of those who have used it in important construc- 
tions, no doubt can be entertained of its practical value. 

The works contain two kilns and two sets of millstones and have a 
yearly productive capacity of 24,000 barrels. Their average j' early pro- 
duction since they were started, in January, 1872, has been between 
15,000 and 16,000 barrels. From sixteen to eighteen men are employed 
constantly. The mill is arranged for two additional sets of stone. 

The Howe's Cave Association, of Howe's Cave, K. Y., exhibits three 
brands of natural quick-setting cement, made from different strata 
of a ledge of argillo-magnesian limestone existing in that locality. The 
cement taken from one of the barrels is of good standard quality as a 
natural cement 5 that from the others is of fair medium quality, well 
suited for ordinary building purposes requiring the use of hydraulic 
cement, but unable to stand so large a dose of sand as the one lirst 
named. A stratum of stone contiguous to those which furnish the ce- 
ment yields a hydraulic lime, which answers tolerably well for making 
Scott's selenitic mortar, although not as good as the best English hy- 
draulic limes for that purpose. The works contain four cement kilns, 
and One of McCulloch's patent lime-kilns, and two runs of stone. Their 
yearly productive capacity is 100,000 barrels. The largest annual pro- 
duction has been 35,000 barrels. The business was started in 1870 and 
gives employment to twenty-two men. 

P. Gamreau, of Quebec, exhibits a natural quick cement which is ex- 
cellent of its class. Of this cement Sir William Logan in his geological 
report says: 

The stone contains a large proportion of clay. A specimen of the calcined aud 
ground stone prepared for use by Mr. Gamreau, of Quebec, gave 11.60 of water and 
carbonic acid, and the residue consisted of lime 52.49, magnesia traces, silica 27.40^ 
alumina and oxide of iron 12.16, sulphate of lime 7.95 = 100. The proportion of sul- 
phate of lime is remarkable. It became solid in less than seventy-five minutes after 
mixing with water. 

A more detailed analysis by F. Able, chemist of the English war de- 
partment, gave results not differing materially from the foregoing. The 
analysis would seem to indicate that the cement would be improved in 
quality by burning it at a high heat, provided the stone is a homoge- 
neous and intimate mixture of the ingredients. 

The works contain two upright kilns, ellipitical in horizontal section, 
burnt intermittently with wood fuel, and two sets of Excelsior mill- 
stones, each capable of grinding 75 to 80 barrels of cement in 10 hours. 
They are driven by steam-power. The largest yearly production has 
been 9,000 barrels, and the average reaches 7,000 barrels. The works 
employ from fifteen to eighteen workmen. 

Thomas Gowdie, of Limehouse, Ontario, Canada, exhibits a natural 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 459 

cement, suitable for the purposes to which quick-setting cements are 
commonly applied, but requiring to be used with a somewhat smaller 
proportion of sand than some others in order to produce a mortar of 
superior quality. The works contain seven kilns using pine wood fo^ 
burning, and one set of millstones capable of grinding 65 barrels per day • 
The establishment produces yearly 5,000 to 6,000 barrels of cement, 
150,000 bushels of common lime, and 1,000,000 feet of lumber, besides a 
quantity of shingles and lath. 

Before awards were recommended for any of the hydraulic cements 
on competitive exhibition, samples were taken and carefully tested un- 
der the direction of the writer, by Mr. James Cocroft, principal over- 
seer of the fortifications on Staten Island, New York. Before testing, 
the samples were entered in a book with the names of the exhibitors, 
and also with numbers, and the numbers only were furnished to Mr. 
Cocroft with the specimens to be tried. He therefore had no knowledge 
of the locality or the establishment from which any particular cement 
was derived. 

The directions were to mix the dry cement with an equal measure of 
clean sand, temper the mixture with water to the consistency of stiff 
mason's mortar, and mold it into briquettes of suitable form for giving 
the tensile strength. These briquettes were left in the open air one 
day, then immersed in water for six days, and tested when seven days 
old. After obtaining the tensile strength in each case, the ends of the 
broken specimens were ground down to oue-and-a-half-inch cubes, which 
were used the same day for obtaining the compressive strength by crush- 
ing. The results obtained by crushing, being regarded as the truest 
indications of relative value, were relied upon in recommending awards. 

The following table shows both the tensile and crushing strength of 
specimens, per square inch. It also includes some English Parian ce- 
ments tested in the same manner and with the same proportions of sand as 
the hydraulic cements, with the exception that the specimens were not 
immersed in water, but were kept seven days in the open air and then 
crushed. 



460 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



Tensile and crushing strength of Portland and other cements, exhihited at the International 
Exhibition in Philadelphia, 1876, as determined by Q. A. Gillniore, lieutenant-colonel, 
Corps of Engineers, and brevet major-general, U. S. A. 

[The tensile streno;tli was obtained on a sectional area of 2J square inches (1| inches by IJ inches), and 
the crushing strength with l|-inch cubes. The mateiials were molded in the plastic state like stiff 
mortar, and tested when seven days old. The hydraulic ceraent specimens were kept in water the 
last six days. The Parian cements were not put into water.] 



No. 



Kind of cement. 



PORTLAND CEilEXTS. 



Toepffer, Grawitz & Co., Stettin. 



2 I Hallick (fc Co., London 

3 "Wouldham Cement Company, London . . . 
Saylor's Portland ceraent, by Coplay Ce- 
ment Company, Coplay, near Allen- 
to^-n. Pa. 

Wampum Cement and Lime Company, 
K^ewcastle, Lawrence County, Penn- 
sylvania. 

Pavinde Lafarge, Teil, canton of Yi- 
Aiers, department of Ardeche. 

A. H. Lavers, London 

Francis <fc Co., London 

AVilliam McKay, Ottawa 

Borst (fc Eoggenkamp. Deltezijl 

Lonquety <fc Co., Boulogne-sur-Mer 

Eiga Cement Company (by C. A. 
Schmidt, Eiga). 

Scanian Cement Company, Lomma, near 
Malmo. 

Bruno Hoffmark, Port Kund, Eastland.. 



--^I--o??g^- 



Germany Cement, 1 

sand, 1. 

England do 

-do I do 

United States. I do 



.do 



.do 



France. 



England 

. do 

Canada 

Netherlands 

France 

Eussia 



ROMAN' AXD OTHER CEMEXTS. 

Coplay hydraulic cement, bj* Coplay Ce- 
ment Company, Coplay, near Allen- 
town, Pa. 

Charles Tremain, Manlius, if . T 

Allen Cement Company, Siegfried's 
Bridge, Pa. 

P. Gamreau, Quebec 

Eiga Cement Company (by C. A. 
Schmidt, Eiga). 

Anchor cemeiit, by Coplay Cement Com- 
pany. Coplay, liear Allentown, Pa. 

Cumberland Hydraulic Cement Com- 
pany. Cumberland, Md. 

Societe Anonyme. des chaux eminement, 
hydrauliques, de I'Homme d'Armes, 
pres Montelimar. 

Howe's Cave Association, Howe's Cave, 
N, Y., No. L 

Howe's Cave Association, Howe's Cave, 
N. Y., No. 2. 

Howe's Cave Association, Howe's Cave, 
N. Y., No. 3, 

Societa Anonima, per la Fabbricazzione 
del cimento, provincia di Eeggio, 
Emilia, first quality. 

Societa Anonima, per la Fabbricazzione 
del cimento. provincia di Eeggio, 
Emilia, second quality. 

Thomas Gowdie, of Limehouse, Ontario. 

A. H. Lavers, London 



Sweden . 
Eussia . . 



United States do 



.do 



, do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 



. do 
..do 



Canada 

Eussia 

United States . 

...do 

France 



United States do 



.do 
.do 

do 
.do 

-do 

.do 
.do 



...do 


do 


do 


. do 


Italy 


do 



...do 



PAEIAX CEMENTS. 



Francis & Co., London, first quality 

Francis <fe Co., London, second quality. 
A. H. Lavers, London 



Canada . 
England 



England 
....do ... 
. . do . - . 



.do 



.do 
-do 



Tensile 
strength 
per square 
inch: aver- 
age of sev- 
eral trials. 



PM H 



216 

216 
199 
184 



168 



147 

192 
163 
141 
132 
108 
134 

112 

159 



181 

269 

51 



Crushing 
strength 
per square 
inch; aver- 
age of sev- 
eral trials. 



1,439 

1,330 
1,140 
1,078 



931 

926 
907 
882 
826 
764 



606 
580 

292 

276 
276 

234 
230 

208 

196 

184 

183 
170 
170 
181 

154 



126 
122 



3 1,175 8 
3 696 i 12 

2 1 205 6 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 46 1 

In explanation of the foregoing table it may be well to state that al- 
though it shows, beyond question, under the conditions named, the 
absolute crushing strength of the several mortars at the age of seven 
days, and hence, with a close approximation to accuracy the relative val- 
ues for building purposes of all the specimens of cement exhibited, it 
may not correctl}' indicate the relative merits of the customary produc- 
tions of the manufacturers represented. Some of them may have used 
especial care in preparing the articles exhibited, while others may have 
sent average samples from the stock on hand. The quality of the well- 
known English Portland cement is fairly represented in the table, while 
that of Lonquety & Co. is not, for they have sent a better article to the 
American market by the cargo than that exhibited. The Scanian ce- 
ment, from Sweden, was exposed to the air three months in a loose pile 
on the floor before it was tested, and it may have been injured thereby. 
The results obtained with it were lower than those previously reported 
by a Swedish engineer. 

Several specimens of selenitic mortar, i)lastering, and concrete are ex- 
hibited by the Patent Selenitic Cement Company (limited) of London, 
England. They are hard, dense, and strong, but their exact composi- 
tion and age are not given. 

The merits of the selenitic process consist in the use of unslaked 
lime (which should be one of the hydraulic varieties) in such a manner, 
in combination with calcined gypsum, that the slaking of the lime is 
prevented. With suitable limes, like the Burham and the Blue Lias, 
and the Barron Lias limes of Great Britain, the addition of 5 to 7 per 
cent, of the gypsum will suffice. 

The prepared selenitic lime sold in the English markets in bags is 
simply lime of a suitable kind, to which about 4 per cent, of calcined 
gypsum has been added, both having been intimately mixed and ground 
together and then sifted through a sieve of 30 wires to the inch both 
ways. At the time of using it an additional pint of the plaster to a 
bushel of the prepared lime is mixed in the water, making in all a little 
over 5 per cent, of the plaster. One bushel of prepared selenitic lime 
requires about six gallons of water. 

The mortar may be made after the following formulae, from prepared 
selenitic lime containing 4 per cent, of plaster : 

IX A MORTAR MILL WITH A FIVE-FOOT PAN. 

Throw into the pan of the edge-runner about 6 gallons of water, with 
the first gallon of which 1 pint of finely-ground plaster of Paris has been 
well mixed, and gradually introduce a bushel of the prepared selenitic 
lime ; continue the grinding until the whole is reduced to a creamy 
paste. The sand is then to be added, and the whole to be ground to- 
gether for ten minutes more. 

IX A plasterer's tub. 
When a mortar-mill cannot be used, an ordinary plasterer's tub, or 
trough, with an outlet or sluice, may be substituted. Into this tub pour 



462 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

a gallon of water, to which a pint of the plaster has been added, then 
pour the rest of the water into the tub, and well mix 5 next gradually in- 
troduce a bushel of the prepared selenitic lime, which must be thoroughly 
mixed with the water in the tub. The mixture is then taken from the tub 
or run out by means of the sluice, and mixed with sand in the follow- 
ing proportions : 

FOR bhick work aistd first coat of plaster, 

^ (Ko hair required.) 
2 pails (6 gallons) of water. 
1 pint measure of plaster. 
1 bushel of prepared selenitic lime. 
6 bushels of clean sharp sand. 

For outside plastering use 4 bushels of sand instead of 6, and for fin- 
ishing rough stucco face use 2 or 3 bushels of fine washed sand instead 
of 6. For first coat of lath work only use 3 bushels of clean sharp sand 
instead of 6, and add 1 hod of well-haired lime-putty. 

For concrete 1 bushel of sharp sand to the bushel of selenitic lime in- 
stead of 6, and 6 to 8 bushels of the ballast. The addition of one-sixth 
bushel of best Portland cement is also recommended to improve the set- 
ting. 

The prepared selenitic lime must be kept perfectly dry until made 
into mortar for use. 

It is of the utmost imjjortance that the mode here indicated of pre- 
paring the mortar, concrete, &c., should be observed, viz, first well 
stirring the plaster in the water, and then the lime into the well-mixed 
milk of plaster and water; otherwise the cement will slake and spoil. 

Selenitic lime or mortar should not be used in conjunction with gauged 
stuff for cornices, screeds, &c. 

The sand, ballast, or other ingredients should always be clean and 
free from loam. When the sand is very dry more water than the quan- 
tity' above sx)ecified will be required. 

No more mortar should be gauged than can be used in the same day. 

If it shouli ever happen that mortar gets treated and sets very 
rapidly, add a small quantity of plaster — not exceeding half a pint of 
IDlaster — to a bushel of lime, in gauging, or make up a smaller quantity 
at a time. 

Finely ground burnt clay (ballast) or cinders, or stone chippings, as 
a substitute for sand in whole or in part, can be used with great advan- 
tage in every description of work. 

When the prepared selenitic lime contains the whole of the required 
amount of plaster, of course none is to be added at the time of using it. 
When no plaster has been previously mixed with the ground lime the 
process of preparing the mortar is the same; that is, 1 bushel of the plain 
lime is mixed into 6 gallons of water containing the entire dose (5 to 6 
per cent.) of i>laster, and the sand is then added. , 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 463 

The best limes for the selenitic process are the hydraulic argillaceous 
limes, coutainiug from 14 to 20 per cent, of clay in which the silica pre- 
dominates. From 5 to 7 per cent, of plaster will completely arrest the 
slaking action of such limes. 

The selenitic mortars prepared and tested, of which a record is given 
in the same table with the cements, contained equal parts by measure 
of selenitic lime and sand. They were made under the personal direc- 
tions of Mr. John H. Sturgis, of Boston, Mass., the agent of the London 
Company, with hydraulic lime manufactured specially for the purpose 
at Howe's Cave, N. Y., rendered selenitic with 5 per cent, of plaster of 
Paris. 

In making the mortar, 1 measure of plaster of Paris was intimately 
mixed with 2 measures of water, then one more measure of water was 
added and mixed. Into this a mixture of the dry lime and sand, contain- 
ing 20 measures of the lime and 20 of sand, was thoroughly stirred and 
more water added to form a stiff paste. The mortar was then molded 
into briquettes and tested when seven days old. They were not immersed 
in water at all. The crushing strength of 1^-inch cubes was 670 i^ounds, 
as an average of 20 trials, or 298 pounds per square inch. The average 
tensile strength from five trials was 116 pounds on a section IJ inches 
by 1^ inches, or about 52 pounds per square inch. 

Although the process renders this lime superior in strength to the 
best natural quick-setting cements, the results do not compare favorably 
with those obtained with the best English limes, and Mr. Sturgis states, 
in a written communication, that he has not yet found any lime in this 
country that comes quite up to his idea of what is required in this pro- 
cess. 

CEMENTS NOT EXHIBITED. 

It is to be regretted that the exhibition does not contain a more 
numerous display of the natural quick-setting cements, especially such 
as have more than local reputation. 

The Rosendale cements, discovered in 1828-9 when constructing the 
Delaware and Hudson Canal, is derived from the tentaculate or water 
limestone belonging to the lower Helderberg group, known as forma- 
tion II, of Prof. H. D. Eogers' classification of the rocks of Pennsj^lvania. 
The deposits are mostly found within a belt scarcely one mile wide, 
skirting the northern base of the Shawangunk Mountains, in the valley 
of Rondout Creek, Ulster County, Kew York. 

Sixteen companies with an aggregate cash capital exceeding $ 1,250,000 
and a yearly productive capacity of 1,500,000 barrels (of 300 pounds), 
are engaged in the manufacture of this cement. The greatest produc- 
tion of any one year was 1,400,000 barrels. 

At Fayetteville, N. Y., cement has for many years been manufactured 
from the same ledge of stone which furnished the Manlius cement ex- 
hibited by Mr. Tremain. The yearly capacity of the Fayetteville works 



464 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

is 150,000 barrels, although they have never ijroduced over 90,000 barrels 
in any one year. It is also manufactured on a small scale by other par- 
ties in that neighborhood. It is also produced at Akron, Erie County, 
^ew York. 

In the Western States the most extensive works are located at and 
near Louisville in both Kentucky and Indiana. The manufacture of 
cement in this locality began at Louisville in the year 1830. It is now 
carried on upon a large scale, by a corporation which unites several 
distinct and separate interests, under the name of the ^' Western Ce- 
ment Company" of Louisville, Ky., representing a cash capital of about 
$600,000. The aggregate productive capacity of all the mills during a 
working season of 280 days is 950,000 barrels (of 300 pounds). The 
largest aggregate sales of any one year (1873) amounted to 450,000 
barrels, and the average of the yearl^^ sales from 1873 to 1875 (both 
included) was 368,419 barrels. The number of men ordinarily employed 
is about 170, and when running full about 400. (Condensed from infor- 
mation furnished by Capt. A. Mackenzie, U. S. Corps of Engineers). 

At Utica, La Salle County, Illinois, natural cement is manufactured 
from a ledge of stone about 7 feet thick, which crops out on the margin 
of the Illinois River. There are two establishments engaged in the 
business, with an aggregate productive capacity of 300,000 barrels per 
year. About half that quantity per year has been made and sold. 

The manufacture of cement is carried on about a mile and a half 
north of the city of Milwaukee, Wis., by a company recently organized. 
The works which have been in operation but a few months are planned 
for the production of 150,000 barrels in a working season of 200 days. 

The James River Cement Works at Balcony Falls, Rockbridge, Ya., 
can produce about 50,000 barrels per year. 

On the Potomac River this same type of cement has for many years been 
made at Shepherdstown, Va., and at Round Top, three miles from Han- 
cock, Md. The Shepherdstown Works can produce 125 barrels, and 
the Round Top Works nearly 350 barrels i)er day. 

At Kingston, Barton County, Georgia, a small manufactory^ capable 
of producing 12,000 barrels per year, has quite recently been put into 
operation. 

Near Kew Haven, Conn., two companies have, within the last two 
years, commenced making cement. 

The National Portland Cement Company, of Kingston, N. Y., have 
recently commenced making Portland cement by the fourth method 
above described, the materials used being fuller's earth, kaolin, and 
common lime. They are thoroughly ground and mixed together in suit- 
able proportions by the wet process, although much less water is em- 
ployed than in the English works near London, or in the French works^ 
at Boulogne. The mixture when completed is in the condition ofthin, 
almost semi-fluid, paste. It is then run out upon a floor underlaid with 
warming flues, and when dried to the stiffness of potter's clay, is passed 



THE EXGINEER SECTION. 465 

through a brick machine. The bricks are burned in upright kilns with an- 
thracite coal. This cement has been repeatedly tested with most excellent 
results. All the cements above named have been carefully examined 
and tested by the writer, many of them more than once, while some of 
them have been used for years upon Government works under his super- 
vision. Their value for building purposes is therefore well known, but 
as they are not represented at the exhibition, it is deemed proper to 
say nothing concerning their relative merits. The brief mention of 
them that has been made is believed to contain statistical information 
of sufficient interest to justify its insertion. 

jS^o good natural hydraulic cement has yet been discovered on the Pa- 
cific coast, or if found, has not been manufactured for the market, and 
no Portland cement has yet been produced in that section of our country^ 

ARTIFICIAL STONE. 

There are not many kinds of artificial stone exhibited, and none, it is 
believed, that are new with respect to the materials employed and the 
reactions brought into play to secure induration and strength. Vases, 
urns, fountains, statuary, tiles, building blocks, and architectural orna- 
mentations, assume a variety of forms and degrees of excellence, but 
they generally have a common basis — a mixture of sand or pulverized 
stone and hydraulic lime or cement — and depend primarily on the quality 
of the materials employed, though largely on thoroughness of manipu- 
lation and skill in workmanship for such merit as they may possess. 

A large proportion of the artificial stone exhibited is hard and com- 
pact. Its durability when exposed to the weather need not be ques- 
tioned, especially in cases where the density and strength are satisfac- 
tory and are known to be due to the hydraulic energy of the cementing 
medium. 

It is now a well-established fact, that a mixture of good hydraulic 
cement —especially of Portland or Vicat cement — and clean sand, if suit- 
ably proportioned and thoroughly mixed and compacted, will withstand 
without injury the disintegrating effects of alterations of heat and cold 
in the latitude of the Northern United States and Canada, if prepared 
during the spring, summer, or early autumn, so as to afford not less 
than six weeks or two months for the unchecked operation of '^setting" 
before the intervention of heavy frosts. Prolonged practice also proves 
that a small proportion of common lime, or a large proportion of good 
hydraulic of either the siliceous or argillaceous type ma^^ be added to 
the cement, without impairing in any serious or even sensible degree 
the durability of the stone, or its ability to resist frost, although its 
strength and hardness will be diminished by such admixture. The hy- 
draulic lime of Teil is highly prized for this purpose. 

The Union Stone Company, of Boston, Mass., exhibits artificial stone 
made by the process of the French chemist, Sorel. The cementing sub- 
stance is oxychloride of magnesium. It is produced by adding a solu- 

30 CEN 



466 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

tion of chloride of magnesium — for whicli bittern water, the usual refuse 
of seaside saltM^orks, is a suitable substitute — to the protoxide of magne- 
sium obtained by calcining and grinding carbonate of magnesia (mag- 
nesite). 

The articles exhibited are soapstone borders for furnace registers, 
stove-pipe, insulators, &c. They are made by first grinding up natural 
soapstone to a jiowder, and then thoroughly mixing it with a suitable 
proportion — say 8 to 10 per cent. — of the burnt and ground magnesite. 
This mixture is then moistened with bittern water of a density of 20^ 
to 30° Baume, thoroughly triturated in a suitable mill, and then com. 
pacted in strong molds of the required form by tamping it in layers. 
Sandstone, granite, and marble can be imitated in a similar manner. 

Samples of the artificial soapstone were taken and reduced to blocks 
measuring l|f inches by l^f inches by 2| inches, which gave an average 
crushing strength when compressed on the side of 10,000 pounds, or 
2,000 pounds per square inch. Several varieties of this artificial stone 
furnished by the Uniou Stone Company were tested by the writer, in 
1870, with some-what remarkable results. A piece of whetstone, made 
with flour ofemery as a base, gave when two years old a crushing strength 
per square inch of 19,630 pounds ; and some fine marble, containing 15 
per cent, by weight of the calcined magnesite, gave when three years 
old a crushing strength of 11,555 x)ounds per square inch. Five other 
specimens of differentkinds varied from 7,680 pounds to 4,923 pounds 
in crushing strength per square inch. 

The works of the comi3auy are largely devoted to the manufacture of 
emery grindstones. 

Mr. Durescbmidt, of Lyons, France, has on exhibition a variety of 
artificial emery wheels, small millstones, razor hones, whetstones, &c., 
and some of the artificial emery in powder. It is made by burning and 
grinding a mineral, called bauxite, found in the South of France. The 
unburnt mineral contains about 70 per cent, of alumina, 5 per cent, of 
peroxide of iron, 5 per cent, of silica, and 20 per cent, of water. The re- 
sult of burning with the proper intensity and duration of heat, is a very 
hard material, fit to replace the natural emery of Turkey and Kaxos for 
many purposes. 

The process by which the powder is agglomerated and a solid body 
produced is not given by the exhibitor with any degree of clearness. 
The binding medium, however, is not hydraulic cement, nor oxychloride 
of magnesium, but is some material which, after being mixed with the 
emery, is molded into form while hot. In making some of the smaller 
articles, such as razor hones and knife sharpeners, the mixture is applied 
to wood as a sort of veneer. India rubber enters into the composition 
of the cement in some of the articles. The grit is of good quality and 
the texture firm. The information given is too meager to justify any 
expression of opinion concerning its durability. 

The Fire-Proof Building Company, of New York, make an interest- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 467- 

iDg aud instructive display of building materials molded iuto blocks in 
a variety of hollow and solid forms adapted to the construction of lire- 
proof i)artitiou walls, floors, ceilings, roofs, smoke flues, &c. They are 
composed of 3 volumes of calcined gypsum, 2 of Teil hydraulic lime, 
and 5 of coke dust, and weigh only 60 to 61 pounds to the cubic foot. 
The material is a good n on conductor of heat and cold, much better than 
common brick indeed, resists in a high degree -the action of fire and 
water, and although remarkably light, possesses ample strength for the 
l)urposes to which it is ordinarily appliied. For floors and partitions 
the blocks are made hollow, with a thickness of material around the per- 
foration varying from 1 to 2 inches, according to the size and form of 
the block. For floors the blocks are molded into hollow voussoirs, laid, 
generall^^, on the longer flanges of iron beams, so as to produce a hor- 
izontal surface on the top and on the bottom, flush with the upper and 
the lower edges of the beam, respectively, the hollow forming a series 
of tubes parallel to the beams. For roofs the blocks may be thin, like 
tiles or flagging, and broad enough to reach from rafter to rafter. If 
the latter be of flanged iron, the flanges may supj)ort the flags. Slating 
can be applied in the ordinary way, as the material is soft enough to 
receive nails. 

The exhibitors illustrate the method of using their material by a full- 
sized model of a portion of a house showing the top-floor, partition and 
exterior walls, and a mansard roof. The steep part of the roof is faced 
inside and out with thin blocks set between iron rafters and resting on 
the flanges. The hollow partition blocks are usually made about 2 feet 
long and IJ feet high, and are perforated vertically. They are laid up 
in horizontal courses, breaking the vertical joints in such manner that 
the ai^ertures extend continuously from bottom to top of the partition. 
It cannot be doubted that safety' from conflagrations would be greatly 
increased if the method of building here indicated were frequently fol- 
lowed. 

The large sewer pipes, sewer culverts, and flagging stones exhibited 
by E. P. Albert, of New York, were made from a mixture of sand, kao- 
lin, rosin, and lime. The articles are hard, i)ossess a close texture and 
suflicient strength, and are impervious to water. The durability of the 
material for sewers has not yet been demonstrated. A piece of it was 
exposed to the weather five years in Is^ew York, without deterioration. 

The sand (150 pounds) and the clay (30 pounds) are first carefully 
dried by artificial heat and then thoroughly mixed together in an iron 
kettle. The melted rosin (25 pounds) is then mixed in and the whole 
stirred to an adhesive i)aste, after which 1 pound of causting lime is 
added and stirred in. The material is poured into molds while hot and 
compacted by pressure. The advantage claimed for it is its relative 
cheapness when molded in large sizes. 

The Phoenix Stone Manufacturing Company, at Philadelphia, is rep- 
resented by a very creditable collection of artificial building blocks and 



468 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

flagging stones, in some of which the sand is rei)lacecl by furnace flag, 
and in others by marble dust. The cementing medium is a mixture of 
natural hydraulic cement and common lime. A circumstance deserving 
especial mention in connection with the productions of this company is 
that the materials, after being mixed together with very little water, are 
compacted in the mold by the repeated blow of a steam hammer weigh- 
ing about 2,500 pounds. They are so thoroughly consolidated by this 
method that the blocks can be handled at once, and the flagging stones 
ranged upon edge. 

The net cost of manufacturing and placing on cars flags 15 inches 
square and 2J inches thick, composed of one measure of cement, 2 of 
slaked lime, and 5 to 6 of pulverized furnace slag, is 5 to 6 cents per 
superficial foot. The use of marble dust instead of sand increases the 
cost of production about 2 cents per square foot. 

The power, a sixty horse-power engine, which works the hammer, also 
runs a stone crusher for pulverizing marble and other stones to be used 
instead of sand or furnace slag. 

In the manufacture of artificial stone, the length of time that must 
usually be allowed for the molded block to attain a certain degree of 
hardness and strength before it can be transported and used has always 
caused no little expense and inconvenience. The most obvious remedy 
for this was to increase the proportion of the cementing substance, al- 
though it also increased the cost of production. The latest device is to 
cause the freshly-molded material to be surrounded and as far as pos- 
sible permeated with carbonic acid gas, by which a portion of the lime 
present in the free state or otherwise is converted into a carbonate, and 
an additional indurating agent thus introduced. The gas is generated 
in an ordinary charcoal furnace and conducted through a pipe into a 
close chamber containing the freshly-molded stone to be treated. In 
its passage it unites with steam from a boiler on top of the furnace, and 
the vapor of water and the gas penetrate the chamber and remain min- 
gled together in it. The action upon the specimen is more rapid when 
the temperature is above 100^ Fahr. The articles should remain in the 
chamber four or five days. 

Eoland & Sprogle, of ^ew York City, and George Kichardson, of Mil- 
waukee, Wis., exhibit apparatus for this process. Both embody the 
same principle, and there is no essential difference in the two methods 
of applying it. 

Eoland & Sprogle also have on exhibition a fine collection of paving' 
tiles, building blocks, miniature burial cases, match boxes, and other 
articles, made with a mixture of hydraulic cement, common lime, and 
sand, all hardened by the carbureting process. The selling price of 
the 2J-inch flagging is 25 cents per square foot, that of plain building 
blocks 60 to 70 cents per cubic foot, and that of ornamented blocks 90 
cents to $1.25 per cubic foot. The building stones generally contain 1 
volume of Portland cement, one volume of Rosendale cement, one-half 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 469 

volume of slaked lime powder, and four volumes of clean fine sand. The 
si)ecimens exhibited are well molded, of uniform color, free from efflores- 
cence, and hard and strong". The molding is done by hand-tamping. 

Mr. Eichardson, who calls the j^rocess carbonizing and the product 
carhojiized stone, exhibits a block of the material and some sewer pipe, 
composed of hydraulic cement one volume, and sand two volumes, a por- 
tion of the cement being Portland. He uses no common lime. He also 
exhibits an iron mold for making 6-inch sewer pipe, the sections of the 
pipe being connected by a collar joint. Each section is molded with a 
longitudinal rib along the bottom, called the bed piece, which has the 
same projection as the collar beyond the exterior circumference of the 
pipe, and supports the section in its place when laid, and enables the 
thickness of the pipe to be somewhat reduced without diminishing its 
transverse strength. 

The value of this carbureting or carbonizing process does not appear 
to be restricted to simply hastening the induration, but it introduces an 
additional source of hardness, the subcarbonate of lime, which would 
not otherwise appear for many years, or at best but feebly, except on 
those surfaces exposed to direct contact with the air, and for a limited 
depth only. It is believed, therefore, that the ultimate strength and 
hardness of the stone are somewhat, though not materially, increased 
by this process. Whether the extra expense which it involves will pre- 
vent its general adoption is a question yet to be demonstrated. 

James F. Allen, of Philadelphia, exhibits artificial imitations of pol- 
ished marbles and other stones, in columns, pedestals, pilasters, wain- 
scoting, mantels, and slabs. The imitations are excellent, the Egyptian 
green, the verd-antique, the Tennessee marble, the black marble of 
Lake Cham plain, lapis lazuli, Lisbon, Sienna, Brocatello, Scotch granite, 
blood-stone, &c., being beautifully reproduced in their polished appear- 
ance. The body ofall these imitations is either calcined g3^]3sum or Keene^s 
cementapplied to askeleton or core of wood. The columns and pedestals 
are therefore hollow, the core being formed of slats with openings be- 
tween them like lathing. The coloring materials are pigments of various 
kinds, indigo, gamboge, chrome-yellow, Indian red, &c., mixed up with 
the plaster and water to the condition of a stiff paste, and then applied 
to the plaster or cement a day or two after the core has received its first 
rough coat. The Keene's cement is used for the finishing layer on flat 
but not on round surfaces, as it is much harder to work than the plaster 
compositions. The columns are turned and polished in a lathe. In the 
Levant and verd-antique marbles fragments of natural alabaster are 
embedded in the body while soft. The polishing is done with water and 
pumice and other stones of different grades of fineness. 

The selling price of these articles appears to be comparatively high. 
Columns 9 feet high, exclusive of base and capital, and 13 inches in di- 
ameter, sell for $80, singly, and something less in sets ; pedestals 1 foot 
in diameter and 3J feet high, including the base, $35, and a good pattern 



470 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

of wainscoting about 4 feet high $6.50 per lineal foot. Plain slabs are 
sold for 80 cents and upwards per square foot. 

P. P. Quackenbos, of Philadelphia, exhibits four large ornamented 
vases of artificial stone, composed of hydraulic cement and sand, and 
perhaps a little common lime. The articles are well molded and the 
material is hard and strong. It is not known whether the process fol- 
lowed in manipulating and compacting the materials was in any respects 
peculiar. 

Wilson Mitchell, of Philadelphia, has on exhibition some portsilica 
paving tiles, some plain gray, and others colored red, yellow, and blue, 
well adapted for paving foot paths, areas, cellars, churches, &c. 

Wilmer & Herd, of Strathroy, Canada, display a vase about 3 feet 
high and a window cap made with a mixture of hydraulic lime and ce- 
ment. 

W. W. Trip, of Providence, exhibits a garden seat, a large vase with 
cover, a carriage step, and garden curb or bordering, made with ce- 
ment and sand, possessing a good degree of strength and hardness. 

Geronino Boada, of Matero, near Barcelona, Spain, has on exhibition 
some balusters, slabs, and small ornamented building blocks, composed 
of hydraulic cement and sand, hard, strong, and fairly molded. A 
church front in Barcelona is built of the same material. 

From Santiago, Chili, Jose Gabriel Cadiz exhibits marble mantels, 
fluted pilasters of variegated marble, and a number of tiles, all very 
hard, dense, and strong. The body is concrete faced with a fine-grained 
composition. No information of the process of manufacture could be 
obtained. 

From the same city, R. Escudero, exhibits artificial grindstones, 
balusters, and railing, composed apparently of siliceous and hydraulic 
cement of good quality, well molded, and hard and strong. 

Several of the parties having hydraulic cement on exhibition also 
make a more or less prominent, and some of them a very creditable, dis- 
play of artificial stone or beton, into which their cement enters as the 
binding medium, in order to show its strength and general fitness for a 
special branch of industry. Xotably among these, in addition to those 
named, are L. and E. Parinde Lafarge, of Teil, France: the Coplay Ce- 
ment Company, of AUentown, Pa. ; the Wampum Cement and Lime 
Company, of Newcastle, Pa., and Lonquety & Co., of Boulogne, France. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. r. 471 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 

MODEL \0F MATTRESS USED IN CONSTRUCTION OF THE SOUTH PASS 
JETTIES, MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

(Scale, ■^.) 

Exhibited by James B. Eacls. 

The model consists of two gridiron frames of timber, each 12 by 6 feet. 
The timbers themselves are 1 by \\ inches. The frames are 6 inches apart 
and filled in between with branches of willow packed rather loosely. The 
whole is held together with wronght-iron bolts 6 inches apart around 
the periphery and with wooden pegs 6 inches apart over the body of the 
mattress. This model is exhibited in the room of the American Society 
of Civil Engineers. There is no written discription accompanying it. 

For the account here given of the improvement of the Mississippi 
River I am indebted to Ool. James H. Simpson, Corps of Engineers, 
brevet brigadier general, XJ. S. A., in charge of the improvement: 

The first steps taken for the improvement of any part of the section of the Missis- 
sippi lying between the Illinois and Ohio Rivers of which any record is available 
were taken in 1836, when an appropriation of $15,000 was made by Congress for the 
improvement of the harbor of Saint Lonis. Thia was followed by a further appro- 
priation of $35,000 in 1837. The record of work done under these appropriations is 
contained in the reports of Lieut. Robert E. Lee, dated December 6, 1837, and October 
24, 1838. At that time the object was to bring the channel back to the Saint Louia 
front which it had deserted. The river was then divided by Bloody Island, and the 
eastern chute was the principal channel. 

The work done by the United States was limited to a longitudinal pier in extensiou 
of the lower point of the island, and a deflecting dike, starting from the Illinois side, 
near the foot of what was then known as Kerr's Island, and extending towards the 
head of Bloody Island. These worke were repaired, extended, and supplemented by 
the city of Saint Louis from time to time. Of the work by the city no satisfactory 
record seems to have been kept. 

Surveys of the shore lines in the vicinity of Saint Louis were made in 1803, 1808, 
1815, 1817, 1818, 1835, 1837, 1839, 1843, 1849, 1852, 1861, and 1862, of which a compilation 
was made, by order of Rear- Admiral C. H. Davis, U. S. N., by F. H. Gerdes, Assistant 
United States Coast Survey, which has not been published. Of these surveys those 
previous to 1837 were probably made nnder the Land Department; that of 1837 by 
Lieutenant Lee ; the remainder probably by the Engineer Department of the city of 
Saint Louis. A survey was made in 1843 by Capt, T. J. Cram, Corps of Topographical 
Engineers, U. S. A., of which a report was made, dated February 3, 1844. 

The scheme of improvement presented by Captain Cram was not undertaken by the 
United States, and no further steps were taken by the General Government for the im- 
provement of the river, other than by removing snags and other obstructions from the 
navigable channel, until 1870. During thisinterval, in addition to the surveys above 
mentioned, a careful survey was made nnder the city of Saint Louis, by William E. 
Merrill, major of Engineers, U. S. A., of which a valuable report was made to the mayor 
and city engineer, dated May 1, 1869, and published with the mayor's message and other 
documents in 1869. In 1870, a survey was begun, under an order from Congress, of the 
river between Alton and the mouth of the Meramec, including the harbors at Alton 



472 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

and Saint Loais, and report made by Capt. C. J. Allen, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., 
to Lieut. Col. W. F. Raynolds, Corps of Engineers. The reports of Colonel Raynolds 
and Captain Allen constitute Appendix I 2, Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., 

1871, pages 312-:327. 

Surveys were continued during 1871 and additional reports were made by the same 
officers, which constitute Appendix I 8 and 9, Report of Chjef of Engineers, U. S. A., 

1872, pages 348-358. 

Following these reports a Board of Engineers was convened by Special Orders No. 
20, dated February 7, 1W2. The report of the Board was dated April 13, 1872, and 
constitutes Appendix I 10, Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., 1872, pages 358-367. 
Upon the recomniedation of this Board an appropriation of $25,000 was made, by act 
approved June 10, 1872, for the improvement of the Mississippi between the Illi- 
nois and Missouri, and $100,000 for the improvement between the Missouri and Mera- 
mec. Also an order was made for the extension of the surveys to the mouth of the 
Ohio. 

Under the above-mentioned appropriations works were undertaken including a dam 
at Alton, revetments at Sawyer Bend, and the raising and extension of a dike in Saint 
Louis Harbor. These being representative of the three classes of works required for 
the general improvement of the river, their construction involved the study of all the 
conditions of such structures, and the works themselves became the types which have 
been developed and modified in subsequent works. 

Under the order for survey from the Missouri to the Ohio, a survey and partial esti- 
mate for the improvement of the whole section was submitted, under date December 
18, 1872, and printed as part of Senate Document No. 25, Forty-second Congress, 
third session, page 64. 

Up to this point the project of improvement was indefinite, and all that had been 
done was without a fixed understanding of the nature and scope of the undertaking. 
The report last mentioned was followed by an appropriation of $200,000 for the im- 
provement of the Mississippi between the Illinois and Ohio ; but its expehditure was 
restricted to the section between the Missouri and Meramec. 

The importance of the subject of the improvement of transportation facilities about 
this time led to the appointment by the Senate of the United States of a Select Com- 
mittee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard, which committee made a compre- 
hensive report, printed as Senate Document, Report No. 307, parts 1 and2, in 1874. Ac- 
cording to the recommendation of the committee, surveys and estimates were ordered for 
the improvement of the Mississippi, together with other routes, and a definite standard 
to which the improvement should attain was for the first time given. Under this order 
the maps and plans which constitute the contribution of this improvement to the 
Centennial Exhibition were prepared. The report accompanying the maps consti- 
tute Appendix C C 4, Report of Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., 1875, pages 471-495, 
part 2. 

Appropriations were made annually to the amount of $200,000 for the years 1874 
and 1875, and in 1876 of $229,600 for work in this section ; the reports showing progress 
of work are published in the reports of the Chief of Engineers for 1873, pages 442-459; 
for 1874, part 1, pages 323-338; for 1875, part 1, pages 476-512. 

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 

The Mississippi River, between the Illinois and Ohio, is divided by natural charac- 
teristics into three sections. 

The /rsi, extending from the Illinois to the Missouri, a distance of 24^ miles, is dis- 
tinguished from the other sections by comparatively clear water, discolored by 
earthy and vegetable matter, but not sufficiently charged to aff"ord a sediment when 
the river is below the mean stage, so long as the water is in motion ; becoming tur- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 473 

bid as the river rises, sand, clays, and tiue gravel are borne aloni^ iu considerable 
quantities ; the alluvial banks are eroded, and this portion of the river becomes as- 
similated to the section below the Missouri, when that section is below the mean and 
approaching the low stage. The average slope of this section at low water is 0.440 
foot per mile, and the current strong. The slope and current depend very much on 
the relative stages of the Upper Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers, increasing or 
diminishing as the relative volume of the Mississippi increases or diminishes. From 
the mouth of the Illinois to Alton, a distance of 10^ miles, the eastern shore of the 
river is a rock blufif rising to a height of from 75 to 150 feet, except where broken by 
ravines and the narrow valleys of unimportant creeks. On the west the bank is con- 
tinuously allnvial, and the bottom lands are common to the Mississippi and Missouri 
Rivers, here separated by a neck of land from 2 to 4 miles in width. 

The second section extends from the mouth of the Missouri to Commerce, a distance 
of 162 miles. This section derives its distinguishing features from the Missouri ; turbid 
waters, shifting bars and channels, rapid erosions of alluvial banks, and extensive 
accretions, building up and removing islands, tow-heads, and battures, with great 
rapidity. Seen at the higher stages, the crumbling banks, falling in masses, the spoil 
of the forests covering the surface, and the boiling, swirling current show the power 
to be encountered; and seen at low water, the wide wastes of sand-bars, bristling 
with snags, and drift of every size and shape, with here and there the dismembered 
skeletons of man's work, memorials of disaster, as forcibly suggest that to undertake 
the control of the forces here developed is no light task. 

From the mouth of the Missouri to Saint Louis, a distance of 15 miles, the river does 
not touch the bluif on either side. A prolongation of the rock formation of the west 
side is exposed at the chain of rocks, where a ledge extends about one-third of the 
distance across the river bed. The rock probably underlies the alluvium on the Mis- 
souri side at no great depth, for a considerable distance below the chain. With these 
exceptions — and the latter is not positively proven — there is nothing to check erosion 
on either side of the river from the mouth of the Missouri to Saint Louis. 

Below Saint Louis the river follows the Missouri bluff closely for 55 miles, the only 
exception being at Rush Tower Bend, where a former island has become connected 
with the Missouri shore. Above Saint Genevieve the river leaves the bluff, returning 
to it near Saint Mary's. Below Saint Mary's it trends to the eastward, meeting the 
Illinois bluff at the mouth of the Kaskaskia, and follows this bluff to Liberty, whence 
it again is turned toward Missouri, reaching the bluffs at Big Eddy, and follows close 
at their foot to Cape Cinq' Hommes. 

Here the valley is at its narrowest and rocks appear on both sides. The Illinois 
bluff recedes from the river near Liverpool, and the river continues along the Missouri 
bluff". A few miles below, the isolated bluffs near Grand Tower are found on the 
Illinois side. Low grounds to the eastward of these isolated islands of rock indicate 
■ that the river once flowed to the eastward of them, and that the opening through 
which the river now flows is the result of some unknown operation of nature. 

Below Grand Tower the river follows the Missouri bluffs closely for a long distance, 
receding from them near Bainbridge, touching pgain at Cape Girardeau. Here the 
juain Missouri bluff recedes from the river and appears no more. A short distance 
below Gape Girardeau a depression allows the Mississippi waters in floods to escape 
into the swamps, and thence into the Saint Francis. Bluffs again appear on both sides 
of the river at Cape La Croix, continuing for several miles, and terminating at Com- 
merce, but the bluff on the west is isolated, and apparently has been detached from 
the Illinois highlands. Near Commerce the bluffs recede and the valley expands 
into the great alluvial basin of the Low^er Mississippi. 

Throughout the second section the river is, as a rule, held in on one side by rocky 
bluffs, and is remarkably direct in its general course; only when it leaves the blufis, 
as noted, does it work out the long, sweeping curves to be expected in great rivers. 

Below the junction of the Missouri and Mississippi the waters of the two rivers 



474 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

flow for many miles side by side with a distinct line of division. As far down as Car- 
ondelet, muddy water from the Missouri may be dipped on one side of a boat and 
the comparatively clear water of the Upper Mississippi from the other. Long after 
the line of division is lost to the eye, the difference in the water obtaiped from dif- 
ferent sides of the stream is strongly marked. 

The river receives in this section two tributaries of considerable size, the Meramec 
from Missouri and the Kaskaskia from Illinois. But their contributions to the vol- 
ume are too small at low stages to have much practical influence upon the navigation 
and but little upon the improvement of that navigation. The contributions of sedi- 
ment, though considerable at times, are usually so small, compared with the immense 
quantities brought in by the Missouri, and excavated by the river itself from its banks 
and bed, that its effect is not discoverable. 

The valley throughout this section, except near Grand Tower and at the Grand 
Chain, is from 3 to 8 miles in width, and at the excepted localities a true river valley 
of the usual width exists at Grand Tower to the eastward of all the bluffs found on 
the Illinois side, and at Grand Chain to the westward of those found on the Missouri 
side. Nearly the whole of this area is subject to overflow in time of floods. The 
ground generally slopes back from the river to the sloughs and lagoons with which 
the bottom is interspersed ; and, as in the like manner the ground slopes from the 
farther bank of the slough, or lagoon, the probability that these lagoons have at some 
time been channels carrying large volumes of water is established. Many think it 
proves them to be sites of old beds of the river, a conclusion which is possible but not 
necessary, since any considerable volume of water escaping over the banks of a 
minor channel would produce the terraced formation which characterizes these river 
bottoms. 

The iliird section, extending from Commerce to the mouth of the Ohio, a distance 
of 37^ miles, derives its distiuguishing characteristics from the entrance into the allu- 
vial region, Avhere the uniform texture of the soil allows the river to shape its course 
without restriction; and secondly, from the influence of the Ohio. 

The times of flood of the Ohio and Mississippi are very different ; and as the Ohio 
alone is able to cause a rise to a stage 40 feet above low water, when the Mississippi 
is comparatively low, the phenomena of backwater are of frequent cccurrence, and 
its ordinary influence extends as far as Commerce, frequently farther. When the 
Ohio is high and the Mississippi low, the current through this section is slack, but 
when the conditions are reversed the current becomes very rapid. Owing, in a 
great measure, to these excessive changes of velocity, the channel is very unstable 
and the erosions extensive, as also the accretions. 

The foregoing are the principal distinctive features of the sections as they present 
themselves to the eye. 

It must not be understood that the descriptiou above refers to the navigable chan- 
nel, when the river is spoken of as following the bluffs, or in stating that the course 
of the river is remarkably direct. The bed of the river is so broad that the channel 
meanders from side to side within the bed just as the bed itself meanders in the val- 
ley from bluff to bluff", and as by erosions and deposits the bed of the river, in long 
periods of time, traverses the valley, so the channel traverses the bed from bank to 
bank, justifying the remark often heard, that '' not a square rod of the bed could be 
pointed out that had not, at some time, been covered by the track of steamboats." 

The movement of the bed is ordinarily so slow that the impression to a casual ob- 
server would be that, as a general rule, the changes of the river were comparatively 
slight and of no great importance, as they do not, within short periods, so completely 
alter the contour of the bends and reaches as to attract notice. Local observers, on 
the other hand, noting the disappearance of landmarks, realize that the changes are 
great, and, keeping no exact record, naturally take an exaggerated idea of the ex- 
tent and rapidity of the changes. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



475 



The shifting of the navigable channel is continnal, sometimes in progressive move- 
ment; often in sudden leaps; the water forsaking one course and cutting out a new 
channel, in a very different direction, with very little warning. \ 

SURVEYS. 

The unstable character of the bars and channels renders it impracticable to execute 
surveys and maps giving in detail the hydrography of the river or the exact form of 
the bars. If, by elaborate survey, these features were determined, by the time the 
maps could be executed the changes would be so great as to render them useless for 
any practical purposes. For this reason, maps, descriptions, and plans, relating to 
the Mississippi must of necessity be .confined to general features; details would tend 
to confuse and deceive rather than assist in comprehending the real character of the 
river, and the mode of dealing with it practically. 

The map from Alton to the mouth of the Meramec is constructed from surveys made 
in 1870, 1871, and 1872, and does not show the present river as faithfully as could be 
desired. Very important changes have taken place at and belo\v the mouth of the 
Missouri since these surveys were made. Below the Meramec, the shore-lines, at all 
points where improvements are desirable, were determined by actual survey during 
the season of 1874. At such parts of the river as are now unobstructed by bars, the 
shores are taken from the best data of former surveys, corrected by reference to the 
points established by the triangulation made in 1873 and 1874. Although not strictly 
accurate in matters of detail, the fixed triangulation points forbid errors of sufficient 
importance to vitiate any conclusions that will be drawn from these maps. The small 
scale of the map submitted, and the fleeting character of hydrographic features in a 
silt-bearing river, prevent any attempt to show soundings. A dotted line shows in 
important localities the channel as it existed at the time the surveys were made, and 
does not profess to show the channel during the season, nor as it existed at any speci- 
fied date for the whole length of river shown. A considerable portion of the survey 
was made when the water was at the mean stage, another part at a stage approach- 
ing low water, but none at extreme low water ; consequently, it must be borne in 
mind that the channel marked out is more direct than a low-water channel. 

Detail-maps of the several lo(*&lities have been jirepared for special studies of lo- 
calities. 

The surveys already executed afford much valuable information as to what the ten- 
dencies of the river are, but do not give any information as to what has been or what 
will be. It is essential that a continuous series of surveys should be made henceforth^ 
as long as the improvement of the river is incomplete ; and it is to be regretted that 
no surveys were made previous to 1873 which can be made available in the study of 
the physics and hydraulics of this portion of the Mississippi. 

DISCHARGE AT LOW WATER. 

Discharge-measurements were made during 1873 and 1874, whenever the surveying 
party should find a suitable place and opportunity to take the necessary observations 
without too great sacrifice of other duties. The series is short, and observations 
were never taken twice in the same locality ; consequently the results must not be 
considered final nor the conclusions indicated as anything more than approximation?. 



476 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 
Table of approximate discharges, ^c. 









eg 






ks 










•+J © 








l-t^ <c 










eS *-> 


> 






p-os 










tt 


fe 


eS 




&^- 










1 


* 




^ l-^^ 






i 
n 


Localities. 


11 

> 


s 


c4 


^ 
-S 


1 


is 

« 0) fl 




Eemarks. 


& 




So 


p 


1 


? 




« k 


P 


. 






Feet. 




8g. Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Ow. /ee«. 




1 


Below foot of Car- 
roll's Island. 


21.8 


May 17, 1873. 


73. 664 


2,500 


29.4 


5.005 


368, 747 




2 


Brickey's Mill ... 


19.6 


July 23 and 


54, 152 


1,850 


20.9 


5.209 


282,108 










24, 1873. 












3 


One mile above 
mouth of Ohio 
Kiver. 


14.54 


July 13, 1874. 


39, 508 


2,425 


16.3 


5.13 


202, 524 


Elver rising 0.2 
foot in 24 hours. 


4 


Philadelphia 
Point. 


11.75 


June 5 and 

6, 1874. 


42, 187 


3,740 


11.2 


3.51 


148, 103 


Eiver falling 0.5 
foot in 24 hours. 


5 


Three-fourths of 10.25 


Aug. 23,1873. 


26, 912 


1,740 


15.5 


3.69 


99, 312 


River lalling 0.18 




a mile above 
















foot in 24 hours. 




Chester. 


















6 


Near foot of Arse- 
nal Island. 


6.0 


Dec. 4 and 
5, 1874. 


26, 281 


2,500 


10.5 


2.80 


72, 487 


Eiver falling 0.25 
foot in 24 hours. 


7 


Cape Girardeau . . 


6.9 


Oct. 23 and 

24, 1873. 


20, 756 


1,730 


12.0 


3.44 


71, 413 


River falling 0.2 
foot in 24 hours. 



None of these measurements affording an extreme low-water discharge between 
the mouths of the Ohio and Missouri Rivers, we are compelled to deduce it approxi- 
mately from the observations made at comparatively low stages. Referring to the 
table and compariug the two observations numbered 6 and 7, when the stages of 
water were, respectively, 6 feet and 6.9 feet above low water, it will be observed that 
the amount of the first was 72,487 cubic feet, aud that of the latter 71,413 cubic feet 
the former exceeding the latter by 1,074 cubic feet, although taken apparently at a 
lower stage of water. 

Accepting these results as approximately correct, thej"" suggest the fact that the 
bottom rises and falls to a certain extent as well as the water surface ; hence, it is 
not possible, having a true cross-section at one stage of water, and knowing the ve* 
locities at much lower stages, to obtain a discharge^for those stages by making the 
proper reduction in depth and corresponding reduction of sectional area ; for the area 
may be lessened by deposits or increased by the scour during the interval. 

Now, if a section of river could be found having an nnchanging bottom, by the 
proper reduction of cross-section to the low-wat6r stage, we might be able to obtain 
an approximate discharge for extreme low water. This condition is approximately 
fulfilled at the Chester section, where the bed of the channel proper is solid rock, 
The proper reduction being made, the sectional area becomes 14,983 square feet. 

The velocity at this section for a low-water discharge is arrived at in the following 
manner. Comparison of the stages of water when the Cape Girardeau and Chester 
discharges were taken shows that there is an apparent difference of elevation of 3.35 
feet. The Chester section reduced to this stage gives a sectional area of 21,805 square 
feet. Comparing this area with that-obtained at Cape Girardeau, by observation it 
was found to be 1,049 square feet in excess. Now, since this area obtained by reduc- 
tion is greater at Chester than that obtained by observation at Cape Girardeau, the 
velocity must be less at Chester than at Cape Girardeau. Dividing the discharge by 
the sectional area obtained by reduction, we obtain a mean velocity at this stage (6.9 
above low water) of 3.28 feet per second. Assuming that this velocity continues to 
diminish in the same ratio, 

(Y-y^)(d'-d") _y/_y// 

d—d' 
to a low-water stage, we obtain 2.44 feet per second as the mean velocity for a low-water 
discharge at the Chester section. 

We now have the probable low-water area, 14,986 square feet; and the probable 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



477 



low- water velocity, 2.44 feet per second ; their product, 36,565 cubic feet, is the prob 
able low-water discharge. We can now assume any mean depth of water as a mini- 
mum ; 10 feet would probably be most desirable. By using this depth (or any 
other desired) and the low-water discharge as constants, we can ascertain the proper 
width of water-way at different localities where different velocities exist. 
The following table is presented as an application of this : 



Discharge -5- velocity per second = sectional area -j- mean depth = width water-way. 



36, 565 
36, 565 
36, 565 



Feet. 
2 
3 
4 



18, 282 

12,188 

9,141 



Feet, 
10 
10 
10 



1,828 

1,218 

914 



The fallacy in the reasoning by which the above conclusion is reached lies chiefly 
in the assumption that a stage of 6.9 feet above low water at one point corresponds 
to the same stage at a point 70 miles distant. The exact low-water reference being 
unknown as yet at the localities where these discharges were taken, the conclusions 
reached are far from satisfactory, but are the best approximations now available. 

No observations having been made during an extreme high- water stage, no data ex- 
ists for determining the proper width between outer levees ; therefore no attempt can 
be made to determine this until more extensive observations have been made bearing 
on the subject. 

From such observations as are on record, it is believed that at a bank-full stage, 
about 25 feet above low water, 3,500 feet is the proper approximate width. 

SAND-BAKS AND THEIR MOVEMENTS. 



The unstable character of the Mississippi has its origin in the rapidity of the cur- 
rents, the excessive variations of volume, and in the loose texture of the soil through 
which the river works its way. Since none of these causes of instability can be 
changed or modified essentially, it is necessary to accept this character as an absolute 
condition, and study its phenomena, in order to gain acquaintance with the laws or 
generalized facts, and thus be able to obtain the assistance of nature's forces, rather 
than contend against tbem. Soundings, taken at various times and localities, j^rove 
conclusively that the depth of water in the river does not follow the rise and fall of 
the surface as given by gauge-readings. While one would not be justified in assert- 
ing it as a fact universally, it is abundantly proven that the bars, at least, rise and 
fall with the water to a degree that may be expressed in the statement that a wave 
of sand accompanies the wave of water in a rise, but moving at a slower rate. If a 
cross-section of the river be taken during high water, the soundings, reduced by the 
known height of the surface above low water, will become zero, or even a minus 
quantity in many sections, and always much smaller than the depth known to exist 
at the same locality at low stages. 

Again, comparing the depth at various low stages upon the same bar, it will be 
found that the depth upon the bar does not increase or diminish in the same ratio as 
the water rises or falls, but, contrary' to what would be expected, the depth often in- 
creases as the river falls, and diminishes as the water rises on the gauge. In the 
language of boatmen, the bars ''cut out" in a falling and "flatten out" in a rising 
river. 

Since we know that, at ordinary high waters, the low- water channels are completely 
filled with sand, or very nearly so, the question is suggested whether in great floods 
the same is not true in a greater degree ; in other words, whether a considerable part 
of the ordinary river-bed is not occupied by sand instead of water. If this be so — 
and facts, so far as observed, indicate that it is — the height reached by floods depends 
upon the amountof sand accumulated in the bed as much as upon the volumeof water 



478 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

passing ; and, moreover, it becomes j)robable that tlie influence of tributaries in raising 
the river often exceeds the ratio of the volume of water they contribute, as they come 
in at times very highly charged with sediment, especially the Missouri. A portion of 
this sediment is deposited, occupying and obstructing the water-way ; the remainder, 
borne along mingled with the waters, and thus diminishing their fluidity, and there- 
fore the velocity of the flow, also assists in the heaping up of the waters. 

At first thought the discussion of flood phenomena may not seem pertinent to the 
subject of improving the channel. Since navigation is not impeded at floods, many 
hold to the opinion that, so far as navigation is concerned, the river at its higher 
stages may be left to itself, and that practical operations for improvement should be 
limited to the low-water bed, and look only to deepening the water over the bars. 
But if the saud-w^ave fills the ordinary bed at times of flood to any great extent, there 
is reason to apprehend that aii entirely new channel maybe made, flanking the works 
of improvement, and disturbing the channel above and below for considerable dis- 
tances. Moreover, there must always be a period, during the decline from a flood- 
stage, when the channel maintained by the flood must change, to adapt itself to the 
diminished volume, for the floods, following the straightest cuts and along the shortest 
lines, convey the heavierand harder materials with them. The low-w^ater volume, 
small in quantity and possessing less power, generally works its way through the 
softer portions of the bed along the bends, &c. 

The shifting of the channel, due to the varying volume of water, is a fact observa- 
ble in all rivers, and the Mississippi differs cmlyin that the changes are more radical. 
During this transition period the channel must be uncertain and comparatively shoal, 
and the only remedy is to control the flow at all stages, at least to the extent of keep- 
ing the permanent low- water channel within the width of the channel at ordinary 
high water. As the high- water channel is always much wider than the low, this 
would seem to be practicable, the main difficulty arising from the fact that the low- 
water channel is much more tortuous than the high. 

Considered as to hydrography and the direction of the currents, the Mississippi, 
when low, is not the same river as when high, and obviously the problem of a per- 
manent and complete improvement involves the reconciliation of these diversities. 

The bars in the Mississippi are chiefly composed of movable sand, and travel down- 
stream at a rate in proportion to the velocity of the current, changing their shape as 
they pass the bends of the river or meet with obstructions that lessen the velocity 
or deflect the current from its natural direction. These bars overlap each other so that 
a longitudinal section of the river-bed would show inequalities similar to the surface 
of a shingle roof, as shown by the full lines in Fig. 1. The dotted line shows the 
changes that are constantly taking place in the surface of the bars. The material 
from a a a is deposited in the dead angle h h h, the bars preserving substantially 
their shape, but traveling downstream. A x>lan of sand bars upon a perfectly straight 
reach of river, which prevents a cross-section approximating the trapezoidal form, 
the crest of the bar being the highest about midway between banks is shown in Fig. 
2. Of course w^e do not find this regularity in all parts of the river. In fact, if it 
were possible to make the river perfectly straight, it would not long remain so, unless 
the banks w^ere protected from erosion. 

We usually find reaches, which are straight in general direction, broken up into 
very short curves and approaching the form presented at well-defined curves, as 
shown in Fig. 3. The introduction of any foreign substance, such as snags, drift-piles- 
&c., will change materially the shape and movement of the bars; so also will the 
curves of the banks. 

When the river rises the movement of the bars is more rapid, and as the bottom of 
the river also rises and falls again with the water, the former channel being obliterated, 
a new channel is formed as the water recedes, the crest of the bar giving way at its 
lowest point, which is usually near the shore, generally leaving a pool of water. 

The foregoiug is given as a generalized statement of the form of the bars, and sug- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



479 



gests that the position of the bars is determined by the outline of the banks. The 
frequent apparent exceptions found in the Mississippi are reconcilable by keeping in 
mind a distinction between the banks of the low-water river and those of the river 
at high stages. The dry bars form secondary banks at low stages, and to these banks 
the extreme low-water channels conform. 

It is a fact well known that in the case of rivers flowing through alluvion the 
channel follows a succession of curves, convex connecting with concave, and that the 
deepest water generally follows the concave bank. The steamboat crossings are 
along diagonal lines, running from near the lowest point of one concavity to a point 
above the apex of its alternate opposite concavity. 



Ftg-i. 



Ti^X 



Tt,.i. 







K-f-V-i:-) 



f*^>^ 



\k ■ Jl 



Even in rivers flowing through alluvial beds, the apparent anomaly of the chan- 
nel being found directly under the jjoint occasionally obtains, and can be explained 
by the fact that the velocity carries the gravel and other hard materials past the 
point, the inertia of the moving mass being so great as to keep it in its direct path 
until arrested by the opposite shore. 

The channel through the section between Commerce and the mouth of the Ohio is 
subject to greater variations than the other sections, because the soil is more uni- 
formly alluvial, and the variations of velocity very great. As already stated, the 
current is slack when the Ohio is relatively higher than the Mississippi; at such 
times much of the sediment brought to this section must necessarily be deposited by 
the comparatively still water, to be removed in whole or in part when, the condi- 
tions being reversed, the current through this section becomes more rapid than at 
any other part of the river. The changes consequent upon these variations of ve- 
locity difi"er in degree only from those occurring in other sections, and will require 
greater care and expense in any works for its improvement than elsewhere, but there 
is no reason to doubt that success can be assured in the ai^plication of the same gen- 
eral system. 



480 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



quicksand underlying or outcropping in many places. These banks are constantly- 
changing from the action of the currents upon them. In addition, the water when 
high saturates the bank, while at the same time it aids in supporting it. As the 
water falls, the saturated earth, under its increased weight and its tenacity lessened 
by saturation, falls off in large masses and is taken up by the current. The quick- 
sand, semi-fluid as it is when it moves laterally, removes the support of the superin- 
cumbent mass — another cause of slides. 

Another j)otent cause of action upon the banks comes from the waves of passing 
steamers, and their action has been found energetic enough to affect the bank, even 
when revetted with stone, the wave-action being propagated through the interstices 
of the revetment stone. 

At what depth the bed-rock underlies the sand, gravel, &c., of the river is only 
known for a few places where borings have been made. But the question cannot 
have much practical bearing, since the depth to the rock is usually so great as to 
forbid the idea of seeking rock foundations. 

THEORIES OF TRANSPORTATION OF SEDIMENT. 

The transportation of sediment by running water is a topic that has been often 
discussed, and many theories advanced to explain the facts. The discrepancies of 
the theories even now held by different writers is proof that the facts have not been 
collected and studied to a degree justifying any statement being put forward as ab- 
solute truth. 

It is recognized that the power to abrade and transport is related to the velocity; 
also to the character of material. Besides these obvious elements there aie others- 
continuity and change of direction and depth — which have an undoubted influence; 
but the relative power of each element in producing the result is wholly undetermined ; 
nor is it certainly known whether all the elements have been discovered. 

A shade of the truth probably pervades all the theories, but mixed with much error, 
arising from their having been based upon the study of a single stream, and that 
presenting probably extreme conditions. From France comes the theory of the con- 
trolling influence of breaks in the continuity of the direction or in the changes of 
direction; from India, the theory that water, flowing between banks or over beds 
of loose material carries a load of sediment, bearing a fixed ratio to the velocity, sub- 
ject to modifications by depth, and, of course, the character of the material carried. 
Briefly stated, in a river flowing in a bed whose material is uniform, the amount of 
sediment borne varies directly as the velocity and inversely as the depth ; and that 
the water passing any section is always charged with the full amount of matter which 
it is capable of carrying. Consequently, the load borne varies with every change of 
velocity, however slight ; dropping a portion of the load when velocity is diminished 
from any cause producing sand-bars, and recovering its load by attack on the bottom 
or banks when the velocity increases, resulting in erosions ; while with a uniform 
velocity neither erosion nor deposit can take place. According to this theory, uni- 
form motion, with its attendant saturation with sediment, should be the object. 

According to the impact and friction or change of direction theory, deposits are 
inevitable if sediment is borne, and erosions must occur if the angle of impact exceeds 
a limit proportioned to the resisting power of the soil ; consequently, according to 
this theory, the object is to diminish the amount of material in motion by protecting 
the banks exposed to attack, and to prevent the occasion for injurious action by se- 
curing an unbroken continuity to direction, and reduction of the angle of impact by 
regulating the outline of banks to a succession of oscnlating curves. 

Experience has shown that practice under the latter theory is attended with suc- 
cess. The former theory rests upon observations, but has not been tested by practical 
works for the improvement of rivers based upon the principles given. One prominent 
fact observable on the Mississippi is contradictory of the practical part of the equi- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION . 48 I 

libriuin or India theory, for, as has already been stated, the waters of the Mississippi 
and Missouri Rivers flow- side by side for many miles, with a distinct line of division 
between clear and muddy waters. Where the waters of these rivers first come in con- 
tact, the clear water of the Mississippi is pressed against the alluvial bank on the 
Illinois side, which it cuts into rapidly, and in the clear part of the river is found Ihe 
deepest water and most rapid current. Passing into Sawyer Bend, on the Missouri 
side, the Missouri water comes in contact with a bank similar to that previously j)ressed 
by the Mississippi waters, and although thick with sediment, the erosion at this place 
fully equals that above; continuing past the city of Saint Louis, the water comes to 
the bridge with the line of division yet distinct, and immediatelj- below the clear Mis- 
sissippi water presses upon a bar upon the Illinois side without any remarkable at- 
tack. Thus it may be traced until the ditferenc^ in the waters fades out, but with- 
out developing anywhere the marked erosion of the Illinois bank or the alternative 
extensive deposits on the Missouri side which the theory would demand ; for, accord- 
ing to it, it should be impossible for two neighboring fillets of water to flow over the 
same bed, and with equal velocities, without carrying an equal load. The case has 
been traced so far that each kind of water has undergone both increase and diminu- 
tion of velocity, and many changes of depth and direction. 

Many facts are required to establish a theory; one, if unreconciled, can disprove it. 
When the attention of the author of this theory was called to the fact here presented, 
he replied : 

<< * * f Jq ^jjg examples of the large American rivers you refer to, where the Mis- 
souri brings down water ([uite turbid, while the Mississippi is nearly a clear stream, 
I would observe that, where the load of solid matter held in suspension is not proba- 
bly the one-thousandth part of the weight of the water flowing down, it may be prac- 
tically impossible to observe any retarding of the velocity on account of the load 
transported ; but with such torrents as above described, * bringing down a large per 
centage of solid matter, and with water loaded with sewage, I believe it is possible 
by experiment to discover a difference in the velocities, as compared with pure water 
with the same slope and transverse section. 

"The exaii, pies above given of water flowing at great velocities pitching about 
bowlders show that a certain power must be exerted which offers some resistance to 
the flow of the water, and if so with rocks or bowlders forced to bound forward, so 
with shingle, sand, or the finest particles of clay will the flow of every stream be 
somewhat retarded in some proportion, due to the quantity and quality of the load 
transported. In the case of the Missouri River, I believe that it will be found that 
the rock and soil of which its catchment basin consists is composed of materials that 
have already undergone the abrasion of water, while that of the Mississippi will be 
more crystalline, and sand will predominate instead of mud. In proof of the power 
of flowing water picking up its load, I may here state that in the cold season 
the water is quite clear, and a rupee can be seen at depths exceeding 10 feet at the 
head of the Ganges Canal ; at the sixth mile the rupee is lost sight of at 5 feet below 
the surface ; at the twelfth mile, about 4 feet ; at 3 feet depth the rupee can be seen 
some 20 miles down the canal; and so on did the muddiness of the water go on in- 
creasing till about the fortieth mile, when a saturated load of solid matter was at- 
tained. It was therefore in these first 40 miles that all serious action on the canal 
bed and banks took place prior to the time I held up the surface of the water at the 
falls; and in my report of November, 1861, I estimated the cutting that had then taken 
place in the first 40 miles at some eighty or ninety millions of cubic feet of earth. It 
was by observing this cutting in the upper portions of the canal, and the tendency 
of the stream to change its channel lower down, which led me to think of this abrad- 
ing and transporting power of water ; and it was my native foreman, Sahib Sing, who 
first drew my attention to the fact that this abrading action on the bed only took 
place when the water admitted into the canal was comparatively clear, and not when 

* Certain mountain-torrents in India, here referred to. 
31 CEN 



482 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

the Ganges was in flood, passing do\Yn turbid water, which can only be compared to 
pea-soup, for nearly six months in the year." 

The writer of the above, in dwelling upon the turbidness of the water in question, 
seems to have lost sight of the fact, or at least does not seem to attach much impor- 
tance to it, that large quantities of matter may be held in solution, the capacity for 
which varies with different soils; also, of the fact that the capacity of a stream to 
abrade is mainly due to its living force (M Y^), a function of its mass and velocity ; 
and that the factors may change and the product remain the same. The resistance 
to abrasion depends upon the nature and shape of the banks and bottom. The matter 
becomes complicated when taken up in this shape; and while Mr. Login's statement 
of facts is entitled to full respect and belief for the locality to which he refers, it does 
not follow, by any means, that the theory is applicable to the Mississippi River. 

In the first part of the foregoing extract Mr. Login is defending the proposition that 
the transportation of sediment, being work, must be at the expense of force, and, in 
the case of running water, gravity being the moving force, its expenditure must dimin- 
ish the velocity. Whether this be accepted, or the view taken that mixture of foreign 
matter diminishes the fluiditj^ of the water, is practically immaterial; the velocity 
would be less in either case than for pure water, though, as he says, the effect would 
be inappreciable except in extreme cases. The proportion of sediment in this part of 
the Mississippi River under discussion has been stated, in a report made to the pub- 
lic-school board of Saint Louis, to be -j^TB-part in volume. Noting that Mr. Login- 
likens the sediment-saturateci waters he observed to pea-soup, and remembering that 
his idea of pea-soup is English, it is evident that the waters of the Mississippi do not 
approach such saturation ; consequently, the theory does not apply practically to the 
Mississippi. 

Mr. Login's observations show that the point of saturation is sometimes reached ; 
and he does not assert that water flowing over an unstable soil is always so saturated : 
rather the contrary, for he says that it required the active erosion for a distance of 
40 miles in the Ganges Canal before the point of saturation was reached. The assump- 
tion that a given current is always charged with the full load of solid matter that it 
is able to carry has been a<lded to his statement, and is abundantly disproveu. 



Passing from theory to the practical question of securing the object definitely placed 
before us, which is to obtain plans and estimates for the improvement of the Missis- 
sippi, so as to secure a navigation affording a depth of at least 6 feet, at the lowest 
stages of water, from the mouth of the Illinois to Saint Louis, and 8 feet from Saint 
Louis to the mouth of the Ohio, the first inquiry is concerning the character of the 
navigation desired. Since the requirement specifies the lowest stages of water, it 
must be understood that the same or a greater depth is expected at all stages above the 
lowest. The lowest stage known does not occur when navigation is practicable in the 
section of river under consideration, being a consequence of ice-gorges above the poiut 
of observation, acting as dams in cutting off for a time the supply of water to the 
river below, which, therefore, drains out. Such abnormal occurrences cannot be pro- 
vided against. 

Taking the lowest stage to mean the lowest occurring when navigation is not sus- 
pended by the rigor of the season, the obtaining of the depths specified at that stage 
does not necessarily imply the existence of that or a greater depth at all higher 
stages; for, as has already been stated, the channel depth sometimes increases ag 
the river falls. 

The depth of a river depends upon the form as well as upon the area of cross-section, 
and a large area may, from immoderate width, afford less depth than a smaller but 
narrower section — a consideration of great importance in determining the plan of 
improvement. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 483 

Another requirement of improved navigation is, that it should he reliable. The 
possibility that an improved navigatiou, after being available for one or more seasons, 
may deteriorate, would forbid the investment of capital in lioating stock and the 
other facilities requisite to the transaction of business. Commercial relations are so 
extended and delicate, that an inferior and more costly route of transportation will 
be preferred to one having the advantage in these respects, but which cannot be re- 
lied on for future engagements. This quality being in some degree wanting in the 
Mississippi route, is one of the principal reasons why the business of transportation 
upon this route has not kept ]3ace with the development of the territory it drains. 

The demand, then, is, first, that a good navigation be obtained; second, that it be 
maintained. 

The magnitude of the river and of the interests at stake, which occasion the demand 
for its improvement, measure, the one the task, the other the means of accomplishing 
it. How great these are it is not the design here to consider, but it is assumed that 
they are in due proportion, and that the only questions before an engineer are, what 
can be done, the plan of operation, and the mode of conducting these operations. 

The first demand, that a good navigation be obtained, is satisfied with depth of 
channel. Combined with the second, that it be maintained, the continued existence 
of the channel is required, or the provision of ample and efficient means for its resto- 
ration, whenever impaired, so quickly, that practically no interruption shall occur. 
The first alternative implies permanent works; the latter may be satisfied by tempo- 
rary. 

Many persons, as before adverted to, hold to the opinion that attention should be 
confined to the amelioration of the low-water channel, as it defines itself year by 
year. Therefore, a consideration of the various modes of effecting a temporary bene- 
fit is necessary to a fair discussion of the subject before us. 

The effort for this purpose must be directed to opening a passage through each bar 
as required, and as the bars or reefs are comparatively short in the direction of the 
channel, it is supposed that all that is needed is to make through the crest of the reef 
an opening wide enough for navigation, and that the increased strength of current 
will keep it open for the remainder of the low- water season. If it were possible to 
consider the reefs as abiding in nearly the same position throughout a season, this 
mode of opening a channel would be simple and apparently easy ; as the appliances 
used, after a<;complishiug the end at one locality, could he moved to another, and 
thus, in succession, a single equipment would answer for a considerable extent of river. 
But as the sand reefs have a progressive motion, in many cases oblique to the line of 
deepest water, the channel is crowded out of its first position, and a' new crest is 
formed, a process which can repeat itself many times in a season. This tendency, in 
connection with the shifting of the channel already mentioned, as attending decrease 
of Yolume, will make frequent returns of the equipment to the same locality neces- 
sary, and instead of maintaining a good navigation over a long extent, it will be 
found in practice that, to be effective, an equipment would find full employment 
upon two or three crossings, and while an opening is being made the appliances must 
occupy the channel, which is a serious objection. In order that these opened passages 
may maintain themselves, it is necessary that the additional area obtained in the 
channel should be compensated by the filling or obstructing of an equivalent area 
from some other part of the cross- section, outside of the channel; otherwise, we ex- 
pect the impossibility that a certain volume with unchanged or increased velocity 
should fill an increased area. 

These remarks apply with equal pertinence to two classes of appliances, viz, scrap- 
ing, dredging, or agitating machinery, and portable dams. Comparing the merits of 
these classes of devices, the advantage would be in favor of portable dams in first cost 
and operating expenses. Both classes have been tried, and have demonstrated their 
ability to open a way through a reef; but the results have not been satisfactory, 
hitherto, because not lasting. It may be objected to this statement, that the perma- 



484 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

nency of channels opened by portable dams has not been tested, as the only extended 
series of experiments on the plan of opening bars has been with the Long scraper ; but 
it must be admitted that the permanence of an opened channel cannot depend upon 
the means by which the opening was made when the means are removed from the 
scene. The competition between devices for this purpose is limited to cost and e^- 
ciency in opening, and it is not the purpose here to discuss the relative merits of de- 
vices, but to consider the results which may be attained by their use. Experience 
indicates that to maintain a channel in this way would require an equipment for each 
section of 10 miles ; to be kept in active operation during the low-water season of each 
year for all time; and the results then uncertain, and a serious disadvantage attend- 
ing the application of the system. 

A permanent improvement must of necessity be designed and executed in entire 
harmony with the natural laws of the river. A mighty river is impatient under re- 
straint, can be led, but not driven. In one sense the difficulty of executing a plan of 
improvement increases much more rapidly than the size of the stream ; in another 
sense, the potent forces, judiciously handled, can be made to do no inconsiderable 
part of the work. 

Permanent works may be considered as serving a two-fold purpose : First to obtain 
and maintain a good navigable channel ; second, to protect the adjacent lands from 
erosion and overflow. The navigation interest is without question the only one now 
to be considered ; but the landed interest will certainly derive important incidental 
advantages from the permanent improvement of the channel. 

The maintenance of a good navigable channel requires — 

(1.) Sufficient depth at all stages. 

(2.) A judicious location. 

(3.) Stability in position. 

(4.) Facility of approach to landings. 

(5.) Easy changes of direction. 

(6.) Moderate velocity of current. 

These requirements stand above in the order of their importance. The first is a 
condition precedent, and must be satisfied. In solving the problem of securing depth 
of water, we have to deal with certain elements, all to some degree variable, either 
naturally or artificially, and the combination of the whole fixes the depth at any 
given time and place. These elements are width, volume, and velocity, and the 
latter term depends upon the slope or descent, and distance, as its controlling ele- 
ments. Of the terms of this function the slope is fixed naturally, if we compare 
the elevatioifs of geographical points connected by fixed lines ; but if the length of 
the lines can be varied, then to that extent slope is an element subject to control ; 
also the same result may be reached by producing a different distribution of the fall. 
To deepen a channel, by changing its slope, would be equivalent to lengthening the 
river. (The change of distribution of fall involves its concentration by dams, a 
method clearly inapplicable to a large silt-bearing river.) 

Volume is an element which, for periods of time, is fixed naturally ; but the dis- 
charge may be distributed artificially, so as to be more nearly uniform than the sup- 
ply. The proposition to feed rivers at low stages, from reservoirs filled at the higher r 
is practicable with small streams, but for large rivers the areas required for reservoirs 
and the cost of retaiuing-dams, become so enormous as to render the proposition im- 
practicable. 

The element of width is so evidently within the range of control, that no argu- 
ment is required to establish the position, that contraction of widths is the most 
practicable mode of increasing the depth of channel in all cases where the volume is 
practically beyond our ability to control ; in some cases, in addition to contracting 
width, it would be advisable to lengthen the channel. It will be seen that shorten- 
ing must be avoided, as a rule; for the effect of a shortened course is to increase the 
slope and velocity, which would require an inordinate contraction of width to obtain 
the desired depth, and the increased velocity would endanger stability. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 485 

The second requirement, the judicious location of the improved channel, includes 
the purely engineering consideration of following the natural tendencies of the river, 
or at least the negative proposition, that no unnatural changes of position should he 
made, or unstable natural conditions he accepted; and also due consideration of the 
convenient use of the channel for all the purposes incident to navigation and com- 
merce. 

In the consideration of this topic, we come in contact with manj^ local and individ- 
ual interests ; also with the opinions of many persons who have from observation and 
reflection arrived at fixed opinion concerning the course to be followed. Conflict 
with the f«)rmer is to be avoided as far as possible. The latter may be considered, 
but cannot be allowed to govern. There are two opinions (held by many who glory 
in calling themselves practical men, and delight to cast contempt upon what they 
call scientific theories) which have their foundation in very poor theoi-y, because 
unscientific. One is that the channel should be straightened and canalized ; the other, 
that it should, in all cases, be held along the foot of the blutfs, where such exist. 
Without entering into any extended discussion here, it is proper to recognize the ex- 
istence of these opinions, and state briefly why they must be rejected. 

The logical objection to straightening the channel has already been given — the 
velocity would be increased thereby — thus rendering an inordinate contraction of 
width necessary to secure the desired depth of channel, and increased destructive 
energy will be brought to bear upon the banks and bed. It may be said that such 
increase of velocity would be temporary, as the river would adapt itself to the new 
■condition, and in time regain its former slope. This can only be done by-regaining 
its original length, or by a lowering of the bed, proceeding from the lower part of the 
river toward the upper. But where the bed is composed of material too hard to be 
readily moved, the accumulated fall must produce a rapid. The cut-offs that have 
taken place in the Lower Mississippi have not permanently shortened its course, and 
many which were made in Europe, especially upon the Rhine and Danube, with the 
purpose of shortening the distance between points of commercial importance, have 
defeated that design, by creating a current which proves a serious obstacle to ascend- 
ing boats; and the lowering of the level in the reaches above the cut-olf develops 
many new obstructions, while the deposits in the pool below caused similar difficul- 
ties there. The idea of the advocates of straightening is that, with a shorter course, 
flnod-waters will pass without entailing injury, and that the increase of current will 
not impede steam navigation in a greater ratio than would be compensated by the 
decrease of distance. 

The suggestion that the channel should be made to follow the bluff, is made pim- 
ply because the bluff presents an unyielding bank, against which it is supposed to 
be an easy task to hold the current. As the bluff lines are very straight this propo- 
,sitioo is similar to the first-mentioned and liable to the same objections. To hold the 
river to straight lines would be a work of great difficulty, and the difficulty would 
increase with increased velocity. One fear entertained by those favoring the bluff- 
line is, that if the channel be allowed to make a sweep out into the bottom it cannot 
be controlled, forgetting that it is easier to control a current following its natural 
•course through alluvial soils than it would be to force it from that course by works 
which must rest on the same unstable foundation as the lighter structures required 
to restrain it within reasonable bounds. Another consideration, which would be 
fatal alike to both propositions, arises from the disturbance of existing business re- 
lations by the destruction of landings, which must result from their adoption. More- 
over, if the blufi" is followed, the landings would be chiefly limited to the side whose 
broken character forbids the expectation of much agricultural produce being raised; 
and, in any case, the landing would be difficult of access from the back country. In 
addition, the opposite alluvial side would be cut off from access to deep water almost 
entirely. 

Existing business relations have adapted themselves to the natural course of the 



486 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

channel ; and, in order to avoid individual claims for compensation, it will be nec- 
essary to make the improved channel follow the natural course as far as possible, ou 
the principal tinatriparian rights and benefits which have been destroyed or changed 
by the action of natural causes furnish no ground of claim in equity if the privation 
be rendered permanent. 

Policy, then, would determine the advisability of following the existing channel 
in all cases, and the same course would logically follow from a train of scientific rea- 
soning, for the law of a stream is the expression in general terms of the facts pre- 
sented in nature. To reconstruct the stream according to conditions imposed or 
assumed, can be done successfully if we know all the facts and relations which enter 
into the problem. The omission of one may be fatal to success ; hence all arbitrary 
changes are to be avoided. But nature overlooks nothing, and we may confidently as- 
sume that the position and direction of the river at any time is the resultant of all the 
forces, and consequently is a concrete expression of the law of the stream, which we 
may modify and preserve, but may not safely destroy or radically change. To accept 
and follow nature is, in this case, the beginning and end of science. To attempt 
either to straighten the river or to compel it to follow the rocky shore would be alike 
presumptuous. 

The third requirement— stability in position — is a natural consequence of perm a- 
ment improvements, and essential to the establishment of facilities for the traffic. 
To insure this quality it is necessary that the velocity should be sufficient to carry 
the lighter material brought into the channel to a suitable place for deposit, but not 
great enough to cause erosion of the bank. 

The fourth requirement — facility of approach to established landings — is an impor- 
tant consideration, and since large towns cannot follow the river in its changes, the 
conditions x^resented are often antagonistic to the natural bent of the channel; and 
in such cases the demand is absolute that the natural be changed. At times the con- 
ditions border upon the impossible. Take, for instance, the case of a town situated 
upon the convex bank of a river ; it is well nigh impossible to maintain the channel 
on the convex side, because unalterable natural laws forbid. If we try to contract 
the width to such narrow limits as to obtain a required depth on the non-channel sider 
which is the best, and, indeed, the only thing that can be done, we endanger not 
only the works themslves, but also the property, and lives even, of the people when 
the waters of a mighty flood demand passage through the narrow gate- way ; and no 
safe contraction can assure the desired depth on the convex side. 

The fifth requirement — that changes of direction should be easy — is mainly in the 
interest of stability, but also has a practical relation to the convenient use of the 
channels. A discussion of the bearing of the direction of currents in relation to the 
banks, if entered into, would exceed the limits of this report. The result reached would 
be, that the current should be parallel with the banks whenever possible and abrupt 
changes of direction avoided. Practically it would not be proposed to make many 
changes in the present contour of banks by active interference, but rather to secure 
a favorable alignment when it exists; and when it is imperfect to patiently wait for 
nature to work out the problem of a good line. Accurate surveys of stable beds will 
determine the degree of curvature most favorable. When the character of the soil 
does not furnish sufficient resistance some form of artificial protection must eventually 
be resoited to. 

Particular pains were taken to survey and delineate upon maps the strongly-devel- 
oped curves or bends known as Rush Towei^, Saint Mary's, and Cape Girardeau, the 
latter being considered a good example of a curve of stable regimen. These three 
curves, if cartfully studied by means of re-survey for several years, may develop laws 
the knowledge of which will be of the greatest importance in conducting the improve- 
ments of the river. 

The fact that the natural course of a river flowing through an alluvial bed follows- 
a series of direct and reverse curves, merging into each other, is universally admit- 



THE EXGINEER SECT! OX. 487 

ted hj all engineers of study and observation, and the expediency of maintaining 
them in sncli course, where local interests of magnitude do not demand and warrant 
departure, is eqnally admitted. 

A cross-section in a bend will generally approach in shape a right-angled triangle, 
the right angle at the bottom and near the concave bank. Consequently, in a bend, 
the width may be greatly increased beyond that admissible for straight portions of 
the river, yet maintaining nearly the same area of cross-section, and sufficient depth 
in the channel. In bends, therefore, protection of banks is the improvement re- 
quired. 

The sixth and last requirement — moderate velocity — has been discussed incidentally 
already. There are localities, especially below Commerce, where the velocity is at 
times excessive, but beyond possibility of being changed for the better. The condi- 
tion must be accepted and met by stronger works to insure permanence. 

Having in the preceding discussion shown that a system of temporary expedients 
would fail to secure the end, and also defined what a permanent system would accomp- 
lish, the question arises, Can the superior permanent system be carried out upon such 
a river as the Mississippi ? In answering this question we have the benefit of the ex- 
perience of European engineers, w^ho have successfully improved silt-bearing rivers 
traversing alluvial valleys, and subject to great variations of volume, and the Mis- 
sissippi difl'ers only in degree from some of these successful precedents. That this difter- 
eiice in degree does not present insuperable difficulties, is proven by actual experience 
in works of the character proposed, executed during the last three years upon the 
Mississippi, which have proved successful. 

The ■problem, then, is solved as an engineering question ; the execution is a question 
of time and money. 

The adoption of the permanent system is but a question of time ; for, as the country 
becomes older and more densely populated, aside from the requirements of naviga- 
tion, the products of the fertile alluvial lands will be essential to the welfare of the 
country, and the state reasons which have led to the regulation of European rivers 
will demand the same for the Mississippi, and, in time, its principal tributaries also. 
The completion of these works will require many generations ; but as the necessity 
is clearly foreseen, it would be inexcusable to ignore it now, since it is entirely prac- 
ticable to make every step in the interests of immediate wants a step also toward 
the final end, without adding to the cost or delaying the realization of the benefit de- 
sired. Assuming that this course is to be pursued, it remains to consider the steps 
that come first in the system proposed, and which will be the work for the years im- 
mediately before us. 

In the interest of navigation the improvement of the worst bars is first demanded, 
and this consideration decides each year the points where w^ork is to be done. As the 
worst bars now are at or very near islands, or high bars that are as effective as islands 
in dividing the waters, the most useful work at present is the closing of the chutes, 
which, we may be confident, will materially help the navigation, as the cases are rare 
where a serious obstruction occurs when the water all fiows in a single channel. Af- 
ter the closing of the chutes the contraction of Avidth in wide reaches comes as the 
next step, and, when complete, good navigation is obtained, and must be maintained 
by the protection of caving banks. 

The closing of chutes often involves more or less conflict with local and proprietary 
interests, and in some cases with matters which rise into the importance of state ques- 
tions. • The definition of the boundaries of States by th^ channel of the Mississippi 
gives the jurisdiction over islands to the States to which they belonged at the time 
the boundary was defined, as decided by the United States Supreme Court in the Wolf 
Island case (Missouri vs. Kentucky, Wallace's Reports, Supreme Court United States, 
volume 11, pages 395.-411). Several cases are known where the present channel 
divides the island from the State to which it belongs, and if the old channel, now but 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

an insignificant chute, is closed, the island will be territorially annexed to a State 
having no jurisdiction over its soil. It will readily he seen that serious complications 
may arise in such cases. Such annexations are likely to occur from natural causes, 
and several will necessarily he made if the improvement continues, and the closing 
of chutes is to he determined upon engineering considerations alone. 

It may not he out of place to mention here the general belief j)revalent among own- 
ers of land adjacent to island chutes that the construction of a dam across the chute 
or slough will insure accretions of land to their benefit. 

This is true to some extent. In the case of a single dam, the accretions generally 
take place in the shape of a bar across the foot of the slough or chute, another in the 
prolongation of the island, and a deposit at the head of the chute, extending some 
distance above the dam, irequently neglecting, however, the immediate vicinity of 
the dam altogether. A high dam just below the level of ordinary sediment-bearing 
floods would insure more deposit, but experience on the river Rhine, where, in most 
cases the object was to make land , demonstrated the fact that three or more dams were 
generally necetisary to insure sufficient depth and extent of deposit. In the case of a sin- 
gle low dam it was found better to locate it at a considerable distance below the head 
of the chute, in order to allow as much of the gravel and other material to enter the 
thute as possible, not only to aid in the formation of land, but in addition to prevent 
the material being swept into the channel. 

The formation of land not being an object of present consideration, we may say that, 
as a general rule, low dams and dikes should alone be used. In general terms, none 
of the works erected should interfere with the free discharge at high stages, but 
should begin to act at some intermediate stage. This should be before the want of 
depth is felt, and will probably vary for different localities. 

The meaning of the words "intermediate stage" in the last paragraph require defi- 
nition. The idea is, that the dikes and dams should be of such height as to produce 
action upon the bed when the river is first approaching the low stage, so as to prepare 
the channel, in some degree, for the less powerful eftect of the diminished low- water 
volume. Yet it must not be inferred from this that violent action upon the bed is by 
any means advocated. 

As before stated, the path of the heavy materials of floods is generally along the 
most direct course. The low water having to cut for itself a channel, seeks the line 
of least resistance, through the lighter and softer material, and this is one reason why 
the low water channel is, in nature, more tortuous than the high. 

Referring to what has been said on the subject of the partial filling of the bed at 
high water, and the principle universally accepted that depth of channel is easiest se- 
cured by contracting the width, the query arises : Is it not possible to retain the high- 
water deposits over a part of the width in place as the water falls, and thus contract 
the width at low water? Two modes of accomplishing this suggest themselves: first, 
to protect the areas which it is desired to convert into dry bars by inclosing them with 
barriers quickly and cheaply constructed ; second, by attacking the crests of the reefs 
upon the line it is desired to have the low-water channel follow, and thus concentrate 
the scour upon that part of the bed which is to be the low- water way. In practice it 
might be found advisable to combine the two methods, and thus open a field for the 
use of some of the devices discussed under the head of the temporary system. 

If, on trial, these suggestions should be found practicable, the benefits to navigation 
which would follow a regulation of the river could be more quickly and cheaply at- 
tained than in any other way, for we have bntto secure the areas laid dry from being 
washed away, and the opposite bank from caving, to render the improvement perma- 
nent. Treated in this way, the immediate and temporary improvement would be en- 
tirely consistent with the system of permanent improvement. 

In constructing dikes and dams upon the unstable foundations found in the Missis- 
sippi, the difficulties to be encountered are the strength of the current and the liability 
of scour around and under the works during construction and after completion. The 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 489 

strength of the current is a difficnlty to be overcome, and must increase with the pro- 
gress of the works until they anive at or near Ihe surface of the water. The scour 
must be arrested at an early stage of the work, or the additional expense incurred of 
placing foundations in deep water, and of the greatly increased prism of material re- 
quired to reach a determined height. Settlement of the works during construction 
and even after completion is to be expected. 

Various modes of construction have been tried and most carefully studied, and 
decided preference is given to the general j)lan of brush foundations and riprap super- 
structures as adapting itself to any shape of bottom, and being able to endure settle- 
ment without injury. Brush foundations, besides flexibility, have the merit of dis- 
tributing the weight of superstructure over a considerable area, while the body of 
brush presents, when compacted by the superincumbent weight, small interstices for 
the passage of water close to the bottom. This material being found in large quanti- 
ties along the river, can be obtained and handled at moderate cost. Extended opera- 
tions would soon exhaust the present supply, and it may be found advisable to en- 
courage the growth. Under moderate appropriations the natural production would 
probably sufiSce. 

Material suitable for riprap is obtainable at many points along the river, insuring 
its procurement at very reasonable rates. It would be good policy for the Govern- 
ment to acquire, by purchase or long lease, several quarries, to be operated under 
contracts or by hired labor, as may be found most desirable. 

In construction the utmost rapidity of progress is essential to economy, and it has 
been found practicable to carry the foundations across channels and bars so rapidly 
that no considerable deepening took ijlace as the work advanced, bj^ limiting the 
:first work entirely to putting in an apron to protect the site of the proposed work. 
In closing chutes, this class of work must be done when the river is at a low stage, 
and in any case cannot be done when drift is running. This limits the possibility of 
])reliminary work to the fall season, and renders any loss of the favorable season a 
serioTas disadvantage. The postponement of appropriations to the close of tbe session 
of Congress is unfortunate in that every alternate year a considerable part of the sea- 
son is consumed in preliminaries, a loss which could in a measure be avoided if the 
amount to be appropriated could be certainly known as early as March of each year. 

As already intimated, it is not practicable to present plans in detail owing to the 
great changes which must occiir between the time reports are made and the com- 
mencement of work. In so extensive a tiekl as the Mississippi, from the Illinois to 
the Ohio, the simultaneous prosecution of works at all the points where improvement 
is desirable is not possible under the system of yearly appropriations, but might be 
<loue if the full amount estimated were granted at once. As this course is not sup- 
loosed to be possible, it is contemplated to prosecute the works in the order of their 
importance to navigation, selecting those places which present the most formidable 
obst^'uctions for the first operations, the number undertaken each year depending 
upon thii extent of work required at the several places and the means available. 

Tbe estimate of this report is based upon the present condition of the river. It is 
probable ihat some of the items included in the estimate will be found unnecessary, 
the desired end being reached naturally ; others not estimated will as probably be 
found Jiecessary; it is, therefore, thought best to name the aggregate sum for each 
locality, without specifying the items of the estimate. As the estimates are made 
upon the basis that certain lengths of dams and dikes will be required, and at a cost 
per unit, taken from the actual cost of such works already constructed, the aggregate 
cost will probably not be materially changed by the changes in the position and length 
of individual proposed works. 

The list of localities is not final, if we consider the probability, almost certainty, 
that new obstructions will be developed hereafter. The estimate given by localities 
may be taken as the cost of obtaining the navigation desired. To maintain that 
navigation will recpiire the revetment or other protection of caving banks. The esti- 



490 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

mated sum of |4,000,000 is intended to cover the cost of such works — to preserve the 
channel at those points where the necessity is likely to occur. 

Further examination would be necessary to determine where works of this character 
are most needed. The greater part we may safely say would he required between 
Commerce and the Ohio. 

ESTIMATE. 

From the Illinois to the Missouri River $fiOO, 000 

From the mouth of the Missouri to Saint Louis 150,000 

Upper section of Saint Louis Harbor 185, 000 

Arsenal Island 100,000 

Horsetail Bar 100, 000 

Twin-Hollow Bar 80,000 

PlatinRock...-,. 72,000 

Selma 110,000 

Fort Chartres ... 75,000 

Turkey Island 100, 000 

Saint Genevieve ,.--... 100, 000 

Liberty Island 100,000 

Hat Island 150,000 

Grand Tower , 50,000 

Hanging-Dog Island 30,000 

Moccasin Springs and vicinity 200,000 

Devil's Island and vicinity , 250,000 

Hamburgh '... 50, 000 

Commerce and vicinity . 200,000 

Buffalo Island ^ 20, 000 

Greenleaf's 150,000 

Add 10 pf-r cent, for contingencies 287, 200 

Revetment between the mouth of the Missouri and mouth of the Ohio Rivers 4, 000, OOO 

Total estimate 7,159,200 

In the conduct of operations upon the treacherous foundations which characterize 
the Mississippi, economy and success demand that the engineer in charge should 
have entire liberty to modify his plans whenever necessary, and to have full control 
over his work ; to push forward when occasion demands, and to suspend when it be- 
comes desirable so to do. 

Contracting works of this character is attended with serious difficulties ; first, be- 
cause all estimates are necessarily indefinite and uncertain ; under varying conditions 
the character of work is liable to change, in the kind, proportions, and amonnt of 
material used, and what was expected to be easy may become difficult, or anticipated 
difficulties may disappear. These contigencies render it very difficult io frame speci- 
fications that will meet the practical conditions, and bids must be made at a venture, 
which demands a wide margin in prices beyond what a definitely described work can 
be done for. Under such conditions the result of a letting, under existing regulations, 
is almost inevitably to give the award to irresponsible parties, the guarantees and 
bonds which satisfy the requirements affording no sufficient security. Experience 
has shown that, with an inefficient or tricky contractor, works of this character are 
very expensive, for delay or neglect, intentional or not, results alike in vastly in- 
creased quantities of material ; and as the plans contemplate the placing of founda- 
tions in water of moderate depth, the suspension of woik for a few days will produce 
a local scour exceeding the depth provided for, and compelling resort to more expen- 
sive methods not provided for in the contract. 

Considering the matter in the light of experience, I cannot recommend the contract 
system, so far as the preliminary work of aprons an 1 foundations is concerned. After 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



49 



these preliminaries are secured tliere is no objection to adopting the contract system 
for the delivery of material in the body of a dike or dam. Necessity has compelled 
me to provide the plant required for the construction of these advance works, and, 
working under small appropriations, this plant suffices to do all the work ; and, it 
being unquestionably good policy to keep equipment fully occupied, the work hith- 
erto has partly been done by the United States directly by hired labor and the pur- 
chase of material in its natural state. Although compelled, by act of Congress, to 
pay 'I'S per cent, advance upon prevailing rates of wages for labor, the results show 
no increase of cost over the prices formerly paid contractors for material delivered in 
place; and all the work and workmen being now in Immediate control of the engi- 
neer in charge, he is made responsible for the success of his operations. 

This system has been found to work well ; no serious mishaps have occurred, and 
the work is done more cheaply than before, though, in part, this may be attributed 
to improvements in the method, and experience in their application. Contrary to 
the prevailing impression, that faithful labor cannot be obtained from men directly 
employed by the Government, the amount of work done compares favorably with 
that accomplished by equal numbers working for a contractor. Faithful labor can 
be had under faithful overseers and foremen by any employer, and with unfaithful- 
ness or inefficiency in the higher grades no employer can secure faithful sei-vice. 



FLOATING LIGHT-HOUSES. 

To increase the value of a light-house it is frequently pushed far 
out to sea and built with great labor, expense, and sometimes loss of 




give vessels the 



Floating light-house. Captain Harris. 

life on a barren rock or a shoal, the desire being to 
warning of danger as soon as possible. 

In many localities, light-houses cannot be built ; their place is then 
taken by light-ships, beacons, bell and whistling buoys, &c. These are im- 



492 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

perfect substitutes, none of them being able to throw the warning light or 
sound to such distances as the light-house with its accompaniment, the 
siren. 

In this exhibition there are several methods shown by which it is 
pioposed to place light-houses where they would do the most good, the 




Eloatiug light-house. Capt. John Moudy. 

underlying priuciple of all being the same, namely, to put the light-house 
on some kind of a float which would be comparatively steady, be securely 
anchored, and able to withstand auv storm. 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 



493 



Before describing the methods, it may be as well to note some of the ad- 
vantages claimed and uses to which the lighthouse could be put. They 
could be anchored anywhere on the high seas, and both guide and light 
vessels to their destination. One inventor represents his light-houses 
strung across the ocean like street lamps in a city; they could be used 
as post-offices, telegraph, signal, and life-saving stations. Pilots could 
await on them the arrival of vessels. In stormy weather ships could tie 
up to them and outride the gale. All these advantages and more are 
claimed by the inventors for a floating light-house which would be per- 
manent and stable and exhibit models and drawings showing how they 
propose to accomplish these most desirable ends. 

Capt. K. 11. Harris exhibits a large painting, showing three floating 
light-houses and some vessels in a storm, the vessels are very much 
tossed, but the light-houses are quite steady, and are assisting the ves- 
sels by firing rockets and throwing life lines from mortars— the float is 
a can buoy of large size. 

Capt. John Moody's float is also of wrought iron and has four rays 
or arms, these being iirimarily intended to steady it and could be used 
for storage purposes. It is also claimed that this form allows the light- 
house to be boarded at any time and in any weather. In war times it 
is proposed to arm the float and use it as a fort. 

Mr. H. B. Stone shows two models. Th^- flotation is purposely hidden 
for fear of having his idea stolen. As well as could be ascertained his 
light-house was swung on gimbals and heavily weighted below and sup- 
ported on a circular, hollow, wrought-iron ring, the idea being that the 
ring would move independent of the tower supporting the light, ^o 
allowance seems to be made for the action of the wind. 

In the words of one of the inventors, '-'- The undertaking is certainly 
great, and to carry it out in a series of vessels across the Atlantic would 
cost a great sum of money." 



II.— >XECII^^XIC^^L ^^PFT^I^VZS^CES. 

BOILERS. 

THE PIERCE ROTARY TUBULAR BOILER. 

This boiler is a cylindrical, tubular boiler, suspended on axes and 
capable of rotation ; it has two circular rows of tubes running from end 
to end. The outer row is nearly surrounded by buckets or elevators so 
constructed as to partially encircle them and keep the tubes submerged 
in water and also to drench the inner surface of the boiler shell above 
the water line at each revolution. The inner row of tubes acts as super- 
heaters for drying as well as generating steam. The boiler is incased 
in brick-work, and rests on trunnions ; the water is received through 
one trunnion and the steam withdrawn through the other. The boiler 
is rotated about once a minute by shafting or by the steam pump which 
feeds the boiler. The entire boiler being surrounded by fire, the con- 



494 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



traction and expansion throughout will be equal, and there can be no 
corrosion from contact with masonry. The rotation of the boiler in- 
sures a constant and thorough circulation of water, thereby facilitating 
the escape of steam as fast as generated. 




Pierce Eotary Tubular Boiler.— Longituilinal Sectiou. 
A.— Boiler shell. B.— Suction pipe. D.— Pump. E.— Check Talve. F. F.— Outer row of tubes. 
G.— Water-line regulator. H.— End view of boiler. I. I.— Packing boxes. J. J.— Trunnions. K.— 
Feed-water pipe. L.— Steam pipe. M. M.— Water-regulator pipes. N.— Steam pipe to pump. O.— 
Tubes and buckets, end view. P.— Damper regulator. K..— Inner row of tubes. S.— Air pipe to wa- 
ter-line regulator. T.— Doors to inspect ends of the boiler. U.— Eod regulating feed water. V.— 
Gear for rotating boiler. W.— Damper at chimney flue. 

The advantages claimed for this boiler are economy of fuel, great 
steaming capacity, safety, durability, and rapidity in generating steam. 

Made by the Pierce Rotary Tubular Boiler Company, 95 and 97 Lib- 
erty Street, New York. 



THE ENGrNEER SECTIOX. 



495 




Cross-section near smoke-stack. 




Cross-section of furnace and boiler. 



496 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



DOCKS. 

FLOATING DOCK. 
(Invented by Clark, Stanfield & Co., Westminster, England.) 




Gridiron stage and depositing dock.— Claik & Stanfield. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



497 



This is one of the most efficient and least costly of the numerous plans 
for floating docks, and, though quite recent, has attracted the attention 
of several Governments. 

A large dock on this principle is now being constructed for the ac- 
commodation of the circular iron-clads of the Russian Government, as 
well as of their ironclads of the ordinary form 5 this dock is intended 
for the port of Nicolaiefl'. 



1^ 



1 



I i i i'i I 



Fig. 1. 

On reference to the diagrams it will be seen that the plan, Fig. 1, 
represents several rows of piles (the upper surface only of which can be 
seen in this view) driven parallel into the shore, and having between 
them a clear space of water; a side view of one of these rows of piles 
is shown in Fig. 4. These piles constitute the gridiron staging from 
which the dock is named. The operation of docking is as follows : The 
32 CEN 



498 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



dock is lowered by means of letting water into its pontons, or fingers 
(shown in plan in Fig. 1 and inside elevation in Figs. 2 and 3) to a suffi- 
cient depth to allow the vessel to be brought over it, as shown in Fig. 




Fig. 2. 



2. In this position the side of the dock has a freeboard of several feet j 
the water is then pumped out of the pontons by means of powerful cen- 
trifugal pumps carried in the upright ; this causes the dock to gradually 
and very steadily rise with the ship on it, as shown in Fig. 3 ; the dock 
with the vessel is now hauled into position opposite the staging, its pon- 
tons passing between the parallel rows of piles, and, the vessel being 




Fig. 3. 



clear above them, a little water is now admitted to the pontons, causing 
the dock to be lowered, and shifting the bearings of the vessel from the 
pontons to the staging without any rolling, sliding, or other such move- 
ment; the vessel is of course now supported on another set of blocks, as 
shown in Fig. 4. The dock, being clear of the vessel, is withdrawn from 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



499 



the staging, and is now at liberty to lower a vessel into the water, or 
deposit another on some other part of the staging, which may evidently 
be of indefinite length. 
The outrigger bahince shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, is attached by a 




V'/ -iJ 



Fig. 4. 



parallel motion to the side of the dock (the form of joint is shown in 
Fig. 1); its use is to insure stability when a vessel is being raised or 
lowered. When the vessel has been raised, as in Fig. 3, the outrigger 
may be disconnected if there is any reason for doing so, such as taking 




Fig. 5. 



the dock through a narrow channel or entrance. It will be seen that 
the outrigger always lioats, and that its movements are necessarily the 
same as those of the dock, so that any movement of the latter causes 



500 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, \%^6. 



the lifting out of the water of one side of the outrigger and the cor- 
responding submersion of the other. The force requisite to cause such 
a movement, even through a small angle, is enormous, amounting to 
several hundred tons, but with ordinary management not more than a 
ton or two of this righting power is called into play, the valve engineer 
immediately rectifying any tendency to movement, as explained below. 
From the great width of the dock the whole structure when afloat is 
eight or ten times more stable than the A^essel herself. 

It will be observed from Figs. 1, 2, and 3, that the pontons of the 
dock are fixed to the vertical side at one end, but are left quite free at 
the other. The pontons are divided into several water-tight compart- 
ments, each of which communicates by means of a separate pipe with 
the valve- house. These pipes are divided into four groups correspond- 
ing to the four corners of the dock, each group being governed by a 
principal valve. In the valve-house is a spirit level by which the en- 
gineer in charge of the valves can see at a glance what tendency to 
movement the dock possesses 5 he at once adjusts his valves accordingly 
and so keeps the docks perfectly level. It must be borne in mind that 
the buoyancy of the pontons themselves constitutes the lifting power 
of the dock and that the side is not made use of for this i)urpose. 




Fig. 



It may in some cases be an advantage to use a cradle on which would 
of course be carried the necessary bilge blocks, &c., and which would 
be transferred bodily with the ship from the dock to the staging, and 
vice versa. A special cradle, with side shoring frames for heavy vessels, 
is shown in Fig. 5 ; but an ordinary cradle is formed simply of a series 
of light cross iron girders. 

The dock now being constructed for the Eussian Government has one 
or two special features. Its length is 280 feet, divided into three por- 
tions, the two outer portions being 100 feet each in length, and the mid- 
dle one 80 feet ; the usual course would be to make the dock in halves, 
in every respect equal and similar; each portion, as is the case in this 
Eussian dock, being complete in itself as a small dock, with all the 
necessary machinery, and being capable of docking the other portion for 
the purposes of cleaning and repairs. The pontons of the Nicolaieff 
dock, each 72 feet long, are not permanently attached to the side, but 
are interchangeable, so that they can be placed end to end, doubling 
the width of the dock, as in Fig. 6. It will be observed from Figs. 6, 7, 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



5or 



and 8, that the outrigger of this dock is made in the form of two par- 
allel pontons firmly braced together; its total width is 45 feet, each 
ponton and the space between being 15 feet in width. Of course, each 
third complete portion of the dock includes its third portion of the out- 
rigger. 

In its ordinary form, with the separate i^ortions connected in the 
same straight line, the dock is always read^^ for the accommodation of 
vessels of the usual proportions; but when arranged as in Figs. 7 and 




l=E? 



Fig. 7. 



8, it is prepared for receiving vessels of circular or other special shape. 
This latter arrangement is due to his excellency Admiral Popolf, of the 
Eussiau Imperial Navy. In Fig. 6, the outrigger has been removed 
previous to depositing the circular vessel. On this system it is evident 
that a dock can be constructed for vessels of any width or diameter, 
however great, rendering them quite independent of the width of dock 
gates, &c. The Nicolaieff dock can take a vessel of as much as 140 
feet in diameter, and, as at present formed, is suited for raising a vessel 




4,000 tons dead weight in about an hour, and is so constructed that by 
a small addition at any future time it can be made to lift vessels weigh- 
ing as much as 10,000 tons. 

A unique and valuable peculiarity of this dock is the readiness with 
which it may be increased as the necessities of a navy or the trade of a 
port may require. This is accomplished by putting in a third section 
between the two original halves of the dock without in an^^ way alter- 



502 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

ing the latter; the pontons of this section may be a little deeper than 
those of the original i)ortions, so as to have greater lifting power if re- 
quired. An important point is that the expense of this addition would 
be at the same rate per ton as the first cost. 

The staging ma}^ be fixed in shallow places, thus utilizing much space 
that is at present almost useless. Only a few feet of water are required 
to float the dock with the vessel on it, it being necessary to have a 
greater depth in but one place, where the operations of raising and low- 
ering have to be performed. 

Docks on this principle could always be used for floating vessels over 
bars and shallows ; they are also applicable for transporting trains 
across lakes and rivers. 

The following are the chief points of this dock as enumerated by Mr. 
Latimer Clark in his paper recently read before the Institution of i^aval 
Architects : 

(1.) With one dock any number of vessels can be docked and depos- 
ited high and dry out of the water on wooden platforms, in a convenient 
position for cleaning and repairs, along the waste, sloping shores of a 
river or dock. 

(2.) The provision of an additional length of staging, at a compara- 
tively nominal cost, is equivalent to the building of an additional dock. 

(3.) As the dock is used ordinarily for lifting vessels on to the stage, 
it can be kept at all times ready to receive disabled or other vessels, 
which can be at once deposited on a stage and the dock left free for fur- 
ther use, and in this respect has a great advantage over all other de- 
scriptions of graving-docks. 

(4.) A vessel can be placed upon the staging, cut in two, and readily 
lengthened by lifting one-half further along the staging by means of 
the dock. 

(5.) Vessels can be conveniently built on these stages on an even keel 
and launched without the slightest strain, and without the risk and 
cost of launching, and without occupying the space required for the for- 
mation of ordinary ship-ways. 

(6.) Vessels, when on the dock or stages, are thoroughly exjjosed to 
the action of sun and wind, allowing paint to dry and harden rapidly, 
and affording great facility for examination and repairs. 

(7.) The dock, with or Avithout a vessel, may be readily transported 
from place to place, for the purpose of raising or depositing vessels at 
diflerent points. 

(8.) The dock will not, under any circumstances, sink, even if all its 
valves be intentionally left open. 

(9.) One-half of the dock can be readily raised level upon the other 
half for thft purpose of cleaning or repairs. 

(10.) Bj^ the use of air, which may be stored in some of the cjdinders 
under compression, a vessel may be raised, righted, and lowered again 
in less than an hour. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



503 



(11.) These docks, if constructed in the first instance too small for 
the requirements of trade, can be at any time enlarged to any extent at 
the same rate per ton as the original cost. 

(12.) The docks are capable of receiving vessels of any size or length, 
or of a width too great to pass through ordinary dock gates; such, for 
example, as circular ironclads of 100 feet or 150 feet in diameter. 

There is yet one more point which will be of interest, viz, the facility 
afforded by this system for laying up in ordinary, high and dry, vessels 
of an}^ form or size. The life of a navj' could be very considerably pro- 
longed at great economy to the nation, without being rendered even 
temporarily unavailable, for a whole fleet could be lowered into the 
water at a day's notice. 

IMPROVED END DOCK OR COFFER-DAM. 

(luveiitov, Frank Cox, 326 East Tlionipsou street, Philadelphia.) 

Fig. I. 




The object of this invention is to remove, replace, or repair screw-pro- 
pellers without resorting to the expensive and tedious operation of dry- 
docking the vessels to which they are attached, and this object is at- 
tained by a floating coffer-dam combined with adjustable slides. 

The coffer-dam consists of a square or oblong vessel open at the top 
but closed at the bottom, sides, and rear end, the front end having an 
opening somewhat larger than, and of a shape approximating to, that 
of the transverse section of the stern of the largest vessel to which the 
coffer-dam may have to be api)lied. 



504 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



In the illustrations herewith A is the front end 5 B, sides and rear; 
tt, slides j ft, screw-rods j d^ hubs of bevel-wheels ; e, bearings; /, bevel- 
wheels; /i, pinions on shaft; i^ shaft; m, rods to raise pinions /tin or 
out of gear; x, packing; y^ set-screws. 

At each side and at the rear is an air and water tight chamber, to 
which water is admitted when the coffer-dam has to be sunk and with- 
drawn when it has to be floated. To the front end of the coffer-dam, on 
each side of the opening for admitting the stern of the vessel, is adapted 
a series of slides, and to each slide is connected a screw-rod, the nut of 
which is the hub of a bevel -wheel, adapted to a bearing secured to the 




inside of the front end of the coffer-dam. Each bevel-wheel gears into 
a like wheel, and the latter into a pinion on a vertical shaft which ex- 
tends to the top of the coffer-dam, and is there worked with a hand- 
wheel or other suitable appliance. Each bevel i)inion is so connected 
to a rod that by means of the rod it can be thrown in or ont of gear 
with the other bevel-wheel. 

In using the coffer-dam it must first be floated to a position near the 
vessel, to the stern of which it has to be applied, and then so far sunk 
by the introduction of water into the chambers that the coffer-dam can 
be introduced beneath the stern, adjusted in relation to the same, and 
connected to the vessel by suitable stays and guy-ropes, after which the 
slides must lie moved forward by operating the shafts, until they are in 
contact with the vessel. As the ends of these slides cannot be made 
to fit snugly to the sides, there must necessarily be left open spaces 
which are closed by elastic packing strips, by preference made of rubber 
tubing, which are so connected to the ends of the slides that on mov- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 505 

ing the latter forward tlie tubing will bear agaiost the sides of the ves- 
sel, and the water being withdrawn from the coffer-dam, the external 
pressure, acting on the packing strips, will cause the latter to close all 
apertures, and the stern will be exposed, so that the screw-propeller 
may be removed and replaced, or any desirable repairs made on the ex- 
posed portion of the stern. 

To prevent leakage where the slides enter the end of the coffer-dam 
there is used a packing, the slides being kept in contact with it by set- 
screws. 

The inventor states in addition that the coffer-dam should be built of 
such form as to displace the least possible amount of water, the tanks 
to be very large at top and small at the bottom, especiall}^ the after tanks, 
which are intended for balance tanks. 

The tanks being large at top would allow a large amount of air space 
for working the dock, giving more perfect control and preventing acci- 
dents while the dock is being placed in position or removed. 

There will be a pump placed on the after tank, connected with each 
and every tank ; it can also be used as an auxiliary in removing water 
from the interior of the dam, the major part being pumped out by a 
large pumj) located on the tug towing the coffer-dam to the ship. 



DREDGING MACHINERY. 

The only exhibit of dredging machinery of any note is that made by 
the American Dredging Company of Philadelphia. The exhibit consists 
of several handsome models. 

No new methods are shown, the models representing the dipper (or 
single scoop) and the grapple or clam shell dredging machines. 

The improvements consist in the construction. Among the most im- 
portant of these are : Using in place of wood, where possible, the Phoe- 
nixville riveted column ; the new friction clutch or disk frictions pat- 
ented by Mr. Weston ; and improved grapples and buckets. These im- 
provements will be found mentioned below. 

hall's bucket for aHAPPLE-DREDGES. 

This bucket is constructed of fewer parts than those used in other 
grapple-dredges. Advantages claimed are its simplicity, durability, and 
strength. 

Furnished by American Dredging Company of Philadelphia. 

HOLROYDE'S PATENT GRAPPLE FOR DREDGES. 

This grapple is designed for the removal of blasted rocks, bowlders, 
snags, cribwork, &c. The accompanying drawings need no explanation. 
Furnished by the American Dredging Company of Philadelphia. 

WESTON'S DISC FRICTIONS. 

For description see "Weston's Pulley Blocks." 



5o6 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 




Hall's patent Ijucket for grapple-dredges. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



507 




Holroyde's patent grapple for dredges. 



508 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITON, 1876. 



ELECTRICAL APPAEATUS. 

MOWBKAY'S " POWDER-KEG^ " BLASTING BATTERY. 



. MoTFbray's •■ puwdei -keg "' blasting L>attery. 

The advantages claimed for this machine are as follows : 

(1.) The exciting surface is a cjlioder, in lieu of a plate, because, ac- 
cording to Hearder, in Philadelphia Magazioe, Vol. XY, page 290, "Cyl- 
inder machines have a superiority above plate machines of equal sur- 
face, in the proportion of 4 to 1." 

(2.) The rubber is so constructed as to avoid fouling the exciting sur- 
face with amalgam. 

(3.) Should the operator, under nervous excitement of firing, reverse 
the crank violently, no damage ensues. 

(4.) Larger condensing surface, thus avoiding perforation of the con- 
denser. 

(5.) Provision is made to absorb any moisture that may get within the 
case, so that time does not impair its efficiency when laid aside for 
months. The case is protected externally by an elastic rubber envelope. 

(6.) There are no projecting knobs. 

(7.) It only weighs twenty pounds. 

(8.) In reversing, when 30^ of a circle have been attained, the collect- 
ing points and rubber are separated from the condenser which is there- 
by insulated; now, a further reverse motion of like extent connects the 
condenser to the discharge sockets^ — a device possessed by no other 
battery hitherto constructed. 

(9.) By using the above battery with Mowbray's exploders, fully 20 
per cent, of the explosive may be economized. Two causes tend to this 
result : (1) Simultaneous discharge of several drilled holes, each help- 
ing the other. (2) These exploders, by their initial explosion, fully de- 
velop the extreme disruptive power of the explosive, whether mica- 
blasting powder, gunpowder, nitro-gljxerine or any of the so-termed 
higher explosives. 



THE EXGINEER SECTION. 



509 



This battery will, under every condition of the atmosphere, whether 
damp, dense, or rarefied, evolve, at the will of the operator, abundance 
of electricity, sufficient to fire fift}' exploders charged with a perfectly 
safe and not " too sensitive " priming. 

MOWBRAY'S MICA POWDER. 

The superiority claimed for this mica powder arises from the follow- 
ing causes : 

The tri-nitro-glycerihe used is chemically pure, and owing to its being 
superficially laid on the mica scales (and not absorbed), its explosion is 
instantaneous throughout. ISTo other compound offered gives a similar 
instantaneous explosion, for if an absorbent be used to take up the 
liquid nitro glycerine, the portion which is superficial explodes first, and 
another portion, which is absorbed into the pores, explodes afterwards, 
and these two forces, one following the other, are not equivalent to one 
instantaneous explosion of the same force for blasting puri)oses. Sim- 
ilarly, when nitro-glycerine is mixed with nitrate suli^hur, resin, char- 
coal, &c., these latter need time for their decomposition; thus there 
are two explosions, first, an instantaneous explosion of the nitro-gly- 
cerine itself, and second, of the nitrates, &c., supplementing the former. 
Xow, an explosion of two weaker forces, one succeeding the other, is 
not equivalent to one instantaneous force greater than either of the two 
separate forces, when used for blasting purposes. It is true the ear 
cannot detect the two explosions, but the great difference of explosive 
force of nitroglycerine when used naked in a drilled hole, as compared 
with a like quantity mixed with an absorbent, and then inserted in a 
drilled hole, can be satisfactorily explained in no other waj". 



ENGIIS^ES. 

THE BALANCE ENGINE. 

(Made by Wells Balance Engine Company, New York.) 

This engine has two pistons in its single cylinder. From the front 
piston and through boxes near the edges of the cylinder- cover extend 
two piston-rods, each connected to a crank on the driver shaft. From 
the rear piston a single main piston-rod passes directly through the 
front piston, then through the middle of the cylinder-cover, and con- 
nects to a crank formed by making the inner sides of the two cranks 
already mentioned twice as long as the outer sides. That is, imagine 
a W with the middle angle twice as high as the side strokes, and con. 
sider a crank at each angle. The main piston-rod would then be at- 
tached to the angle at the apex, and the two smaller rods to the angles 
at the base. The cranks, it will be observed, are set in the same plane, 
and not quartering, as is usually the case. The steam ports enter the 



5IO 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



cylinder at the middle and at the ends, and the stroke of each piston 
equals, of course, half the length of the cylinder. The steam enters 
between them and forces them apart, and then enters at the ends and 
carries the pistons together ; the result is that the i)Ower is applied to 
the shaft just as the two hands are to the handle of an auger, and the 
reciprocating parts are balanced, while the engine runs at high speed 
with little vibration. 



FORGi:S. 



THE EMPIRE FORGE. 



(Manufactured by the Empire Portable Forge Compauy, Troy, N. Y.) 

The manufacturers claim the following advantages for these forges: 

(1.) The motion is imparted to the fan, through gearing and friction 
pulleys, from a lever, worked the same as on the old bellows — doing away 
with the fatiguiug crank motion. 

(2.) They are constructed entirely of metal, having no belts or bellows 
to wear ont or stretch by damp weather, and are simple in their con- 
struction. 

(3.) They give a continuous blast and no back draught. 

(4.) They will heat a 3-iuch bar to a welding heat in less than ten 
minutes, and will work iron from J to 8 inches as easily as a stationary 
forge. 

(5.) They have the "bird's-nest" tuyere, allowing nothing to escape 
into the ash-box. 

(6.) They are easily moved about from place to place, and are dura- 




No. 15, or army forge, for traDsportation. 



ble because all the shaft-journals run in bronze bearings, which can be 
replaced when worn at a very moderate cost, by sending for new ones 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



511 



* to the factory; and the fan is provided with oil-cups which will lubri' 
cate it for a long time. 

This forge is made to fold up and pack away in a chest 2 feet 2 in- 
ches long, 1 foot 10 inches wide, and 1 foot 4 inches deep. Its weight 
is only 75 pounds. 

The "army forge" is made of wrought iron, the legs and back folding 
together compactly when closed. This forge is designed for use on the 
mountains or plains, where they are transported for long distances, and 
where lightness and strength are desirable. It can be uni^acked and 
ready for use in one minute. 

Seven-inch fan: 18 by 16 fire-fan; 30 inches high, $50. 




Geared for power. For shop use. 

PEICE-LIST. 

Both with and witliout hood and doors. 



No. 


Fan. 


Diameter. 


Height. 


Weight. 


Price. 


without hood ...... .. ... 


In. 

7 
7 
8 
8 
7 
7 
8 
8 


Ft. In. 

1 10 

2 1 
2 3 
2 7 

1 10 

2 1 
2 3 
2 7 


Ft. In. 
3 4 
3 6 

3 9 

4 

3 10 

4 
4 3 
4 6 


Pounds. 
145 
155 
250 
2F5 
175 
185 
290 
300 


$35 00 
40 00 






50 00 


3 without hood 


60 00 




40 00 


1 witli hood 


45 00 


2, with hood 


55 00 




65 00 











512 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 
KEYSTONE PORTABLE FORGES. 



(Manufactured by Keystone Portable Forge Company, office 120 Exchange Place, 

Pliiladelphia.) 

This compaDy manufactures many different styles of forges. Unly 
those will be mentioned which seem specially adapted to army use. 
One of the recent additions to these forges is the chain gear, for 




Chain gear. 

which the company claims the following advantages : 

(1.) Great durability. 

(2.) It can be used in all sorts of weather, is not liable to injury, and 
can be repaired by any blacksmith. 

(3.) It has absolutely no slip. 

(4.) It can be run quite slack, reducing friction and power without 
reducing blast as there is no lost motion. 



POWER FORGES. 

Section. 




A. Fire-pan; diameter, 54 inches ; thickness. | inch ; weight, 300 pounds. B. Hearth. C. Water 
hox for wet coal, &c. D. Tuyere-box, and ash receiver. E. Fan-blower, diameter 9 inches. F. Han- 
ger, to which are attached 12inch driving-wheel, and 4 inch fast and loose pulleys. G. Flat belt, 2^ 
inches wide, from 12-inch driving wheel to 2-inch fan pulley. H. Boiler- iron base with 4 manholes, 
each 12 inches square. I. Cast-iron sub-hase. K. Flat driving-belt, 2 inches wide, which runs on 4- 
inch fast and loose pulleys. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



"sn 



One horse-power is ample to rim eight of these forges. 

The speed of the fan should be about 1,200 revolutious per minute. 




Fuifte No. 5 



For^ie No. 



Size of 
firepan. 



Weig 



Price. 



Forge No . 5 (oval fire-pan) 

Forge No. 6. (circular fire-pan) 



Inches. 
54 by 36 
54 by 54 



Founds. 
550» 
600 



$145 GO 
160 00 



EIYETING FOEGE. 

(Chaia Gear.) 





Kiveting foi'ge ; i)rice, $75. 



Diagram of riveting pot. 



This forge has been constructed for the use of boiler-makers, ship- 
builders, &c., and will work with hard or soft coal or coke. 

The frame is strong and firmly braced. The pot has three doors, 
the openings being closed, when not in use, by falling lids. The top of 
the pot is covered with a heavy lid, which is thrown open to kindle the 
fire, and closed when heating rivets, thus coking the coal and obtaining 
an intense heat. 

The blast, entering the tuyere-box, passes through the tuyere grate 
and the sides of the basket, penetrating the fuel on all sides. 

33 CEN 



514 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

NAVY AND MINEES' FOEGES. 

(Chaiu Gear.) 




ISi avy forge ; price, $80. 
Height, 22 inches. Size of fire-pan, 22 by 27 inches. Weight, 200 lbs. Diameter of fan, 9 inches. 

The fire-pan is made of wrought iron, and is 10 inches deep, contain- 
ing all the other parts of the forge when packed for transportation. 

The blower and gearing are compactly framed together, and fit into 
a slot on the end of the forge when in use. 

Tlie legs, made of angle iron, fit into slots at the corners of the fire- 
pan. 

The tuyere-box fits into a slot under the hearth. 

The hearth is made of heav^^ cast-iron, and is bolted to the bottom of 
the fire pan. 

The lid of the fire-pan is made of heavy sheet iron, and so attached 
by strong hinges that when the forge is in use it is raised perpendicu- 
larly, forming a back or fender. 

This forge is designed for use on ships and steamers, and on land for 
army purposes, miners, wagon trains ; wherever exposed to rough hand- 
ling and use in transportation by land and sek. It can be set up for 
use or packed for transportation in one minute. Those made for ships 
and steamers have two eye-bolts on each side, by which they are secured 
to the deck beams. Thus they are entirely out of the way when not in 
use, and are ready at five minutes' notice when required. 

To pack the forge for transportation, the blower and gearing, legs and 
tuyere- box are withdrawn from the slots, and, with the short blast pipe 
are placed in the fi.re pan. The falling doors, at the sides of the fire- 
l)an, are closed and fastened. The lid is shut down and fastened by 
a hasp. The entire forge thus packed occupies a space only 22 by 27 
inches square and 10 inches deep. 



THE ENGINEER SECTIOA. 5 I 5 

This forge will produce a quick welding- heat on iron of 2 inches diame- 
ter, and on larger iron if required, as tliore is ])lenty of spare blast. 



Kavy forge (packed). 
MINERS' FORGE (CHAIN GEAR). 

The forge is about 15 by 22 inches square and G inches deep, will 
weigh 70 pounds, will have a o-inch fan, and general capacity same as 
blacksmith's forge Ko. 1. It is designed specially for prospecting nii- 
ners, pack trains, cavalry nse, engineering and surveying parties, «&c., 
wherever a smaller, lighter, and cheaper forge than the navy forge is 
required. 

The price of the miners' ibrge is $45. 



HOISTING MACHINEEY. 

Messrs. Appleby Brothers, Emerson street, Sonthwark, London, S. 
E., exhibit several locomotive steam cranes, two of which were selected 
by the Centennial Commissioners for unloading and placing the heavy 
portion of the exhibits. These cranes can — 

1. Lift and lower ; 

2. Turn completely round in either direction simultaneously with the 
lifting or lowering; 

3. Alter the radius by raising or lowering the jib-head ; and, 

4. Travel along rails by steam ; all of these motions being worked by 
one man who attends to the boiler. 

The cranes made by this firm which would probably be most useful 
to engineers are: the portable steam crane with fixed jib, the improved 
single-cylinder contractors' portable steam crane or hoisting engine, 
and the single-cylinder hoisting engine. 

The former is of a different type from those mentioned above, the 
object in designing it being to make a cheap and simple crane, capable 
of performing the two functions of lifting the load and turning entirely 
around, but not requiring a variable radius, or a steam traveling motion. 
This crane revolves on a strong central pin instead of the usual crane 
post ) the gear and working parts are kept close to the center of grav- 
ity J and the cylinders have link reversing motions, and are placed 
horizontally so that the driver may have nothing to obstruct his view. 
The brakes and other levers and clutches are placed conveniently for 
ready handling, and the lifting and slewing motions may be worked 
simultaneously in either direction without stopping or reversing the 



■516 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



engine. The gauge of rails on which the crane travels is usually 4 feet 
8J inches, but it may be varied to suit. The jib can also be made to 
any reasonable radius, but it is usually about 14 feet from center of 




Portable steam crane. — Appleby Brothers. 

crane to the plumb line of the chain. The engraving represents a 
crane to lift 5 tons, and has two cylinders ; the smaller sizes have only 
one cylinder, but are in other respects similar. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 
Price list of portable steam cranes. 



517 



Power of crane in tons 

Maximum radius with full load' feet.. 

Pnce of crane to lift and slew" 

Price extra, if with two cylinders 

Approximate weifrlit in tons 

Approximate measurement cubic feet. . 



i 1^ 


3 


4 


12 


14 


14 


£250 


£300 


£350 , 


£15 


£18 


£20 ' 


6 


7 


9 ; 


300 


400 


450 



5 

14 

£430 



11 

500 



Packing for shipment and deliverj-, F. O. B., Liverpool, six per cent. 




tugine— Single cylinder. 



51 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



The improved single-cylinder contractors' portable steam crane or 
hoisting engine is made with pillar and jib to swing fully half round, 
and chain to reach 15 feet below ground line ; an 8 horse-power crane, 
the size generally used, will lift and deal with loads of 30 cwt. at quick 
speed and with single chain. 




Hoisting engine. — Single cylinder. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 
CONTRACTORS' STEAM CRANES. 



519 



Nominal horse-po-wer 

Diameter of cylinder inrhes . 

Price, with road-wheels, shafts, and locking- plate . 

Price, with plain or flanged wheels for trams or 
railway (without shafts and lockino:-plate) . . . 

Price, without wheels and axles for fixing on tim- 
ber, brick or other foundations 

Extra for governors and expansion-valve 

Extra for link-motion reversing gear 

Extra forfeiting, lagging, and covering boiler with 
sheet-ifon 

Extra for skeleton roof 

Extra for packing for shipment 

Approximate weight tons . . 





Single cylinder. 




Doulbe cyli] 


1 

3 


4 


6 


8 


12 


6 


8 1 


5§ 


6 


7^ 


9 


11 


5^ 


6 1 


£190 


£228 


£260 


£295 


£370 


£286 


£355 


185 


223 


255 


289 


360 


281 


350 


180 


218 


249 


282 


352 


275 


343 


10 


12 


13 


30 


25 


15 


20 1 


7 


8 


10 


11 


12 


15 


18 


10 


12 


13 


15 


16 


13 


15 


8 


9 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


9 


10 


3i 


4| 


5 


7i 


Si 


4 


7 



12 
7i 
£415 

405 

397 
25 
20 

17 
10 
12 
8^ 



The single cylinder hoisting engine for lifting barrows or building materials, &c. 

The boiler, engine, and gear are mounted on a strong wrougbt-iron 
frame, with plain or flanged wheels. The boiler has an ash-pit, with 
feed-water tank under, so that it may stand on a timber staging or floor 
without danger. 

The 3 horse-power engine will lift loads of 15 cwt. with single chain. 
A capstan end may be fitted on the long end of the barrel shaft. The 
capstan is not included in the list of prices. 

HOISTING ENGINES. 



Nominal horse-power .' 

Diameter of cylinder inches.. 

Price, with plain or flanged wheels for tram or 

rails (without shafts and locking-plate) 

Price, without wheels and axles (for fixing on brick 

or timber) 

Price, with road- wheels, shafts, and locking-plate. 

Extra for governors and expansion-valve. ... 

Extra for link-motion reversing gear 

Extra for felting, lagging, and covering boiler with 

sheet-iron 

Extra for skeleton roof 

Extra for packing for shipment 

Approximate weight tons . . 



Single cylinder. 



£155 £195 £220 £245 



238 
255 

20 

11 

15 
10 
9 

5| 



150 


190 


214 


160 


202 


228 


10 


12 


13 


7 


8 


10 


10 


12 


13 


8 


9 


10 


6 


7 


8 


2i 


3i 


3i 



12 
11 

£315 

307 

325 

25 

12 

16 
10 
10 



Double cylinder, 



5i 

£250 

244 

255 

15 

15 

13 
10 



8 
6i 

£288 

281 

295 

20 

18 

15 
10 



12 

7i 

£360 



370 
25 
20 



17 
10 
10 

71 



Packing for shipment and delivery, F. O. B., Liverpool, 6 per cent. 

Appleby Bros, also make hand-cranes, concrete-mixers, mortar-mills, 
portable dredgers for mud and sand, &c., for a description of which the 
reader is referred to their illustrated catalogue. 

OVERHEAD STEAM CRANES AT MIDDLESBROUGH DOCKS. 



These being especially large appliances of this nature are deemed wor- 
thy of notice. The description is taken from "Engineering" : 

The traveling frame, or gantry, of each crane has a span of 23 feet center to center 
of rails, one of the latter being laid close to the edge of the quay, and the other in 
the 6 feet between rails. The clear height is 17 feet 6 inches, which allows the un- 
interrupted circulation of locomotives and all kinds of rolling stock «)n each of the two 
lines of rails which are spanned by the gantry. The traveling wheels are 12 feet cen- 



520 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



ter to center. The franiiug is composed of a pair of timber uprights, braced and 
strengthened by cast-iron brackets and two wrought-iron plate girders, which are 
connected to the timber uprights by four wrought-iron plate brackets, strengthened 
with angle irons. A strong carriage, with the necessary roller path and brackets for 
the gear required to transmit the traveling motion, which will shortly be referred to, 
is firmly bolted at the extreme end of the girders nearest to the dock, while the gird- 
ers are planked over so as to form a store for coal and water. The crane and the 
whole of the substructure is designed for a working load of 5 tons at the maximrTm 
radius of 21 feet from center of crane-post to the plumb-line of theliftin'j; chain, while 




Overhead craues at Mi(ldlesbr(>u<;li docks. 



the crane itself is of precisely the same construction as those which have given satis- 
factory working results elsewhere, with apparatus for altering the radius by steam 
from a maximum of 24 feet to a minimum of 14 fVet. 

The traveling motion is transmitted froni the crane-engines by suitable gear and 
shafts to the traveling wheels, and warping drums or capstans are fitted on a counter- 
shaft on the inner side of each frame, so that these warping drums can be driven in- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



521 



dependently of the traveling wheeKs, and they are used for moving the trucks into 
position below the crane, as they are required for loading and unloading. This sim- 
ple addition is found to effect a very large saving in manual labor and time, which, 
it is estimated, amounts to at least £300 per y«'ar, because, without this appliance, 
horses and locomotives must be kept constantly employed, involving working ex- 
penses and wear and tear, in addition to the maintenance of the road, whilst with 
the capstans the trucks are brought into position by the men in stowing and slinging, 
with no further wear and tear of road than that due to the paying load. As it was 
decided to adopt this system of crane throughout the dock, the two lines of rails 
spanned by the gantry are laid with crossings at such intervals as will admit of 
either line being used for full or empty trucks, or in fact partially for both purposes 
if desired. 

Another great advantage which has been demonstrated by practice is, that the 
cranes can be so readily concentrated at any point where they may be required; and, 
indeed, as is shown in the engraving, three of these cranes are brought to load a long 
screw steamer having three hatchways. This is evidently a most important con- 
sideration with owners and shippers, especially under circumstances which so fre- 
quently arise "j*diere great dispatch is essential. Or two cranes can be brought to- 
gether for any exceptionally heavy lift. The cranes were tested with the maximum 
working load of 5 tons, and subsequently for speed, when each crane delivered 50 
tons per hour from the trucks into the steamer's hatchwa 

ROAD LOCOMOTIVE CRANE ENGINE. 

Made by Aveling & Poi'ter. William Churchill Oastler, sole agent for the United 
States, 43 Exchange Place, New York. 

This eDgiiie can be moved from place to place by its own power and 
draw very heavy loads, a 6 horse-power engine, on trial at South Orange, 
N. J., ill 1872, pulling a train of ten wagons, the total load being 63,400 
pounds, up a hill with a rise of 4.27 feet in 100, a length of 1,435 feet. 
Each of these wagons could be drawn up the hill by two good horses, 
but with great effort, so this engine performed the work of twenty 
horses. It might be found useful for military purposes and for contract- 
ors' work in general. 

A short description of some of its peculiarities may be of interest. 

The single cylinder is placed on the forward part of the boiler, and is 
surrounded by a steam jacket in direct communication with it. The 
steam is taken into the cylinder from a dome connected with a jacket- 
Primiug is by this means prevented; the use of steam pipes either in- 
side or outside the boiler is rendered needless, and a considerable econ- 
omy in fuel is effected. The crank-shaft brackets are formed out of the 
side plates of the fire-box, extended ui^ward and backward in one piece, 
so as not only to carry the crank-shaft, but to provide bearings also for 
the counter-shaft and driving axle, in the most convenient position. 
This patent arrangement produces a combination of much strength 
and lightness, reduces to a minimum the loss and annoyance from leak- 
age or strained bolt-holes, and unites all parts peculiarly exposed to 
injury by jarring, with such firmness as to give almost absolute secu- 
rity against such injury on even very rough roads. The driving-wheels 



522 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



are of wrought iron, and are fitted with compensating motion for turn- 
ing sharp curves without disconnecting either wheel, both being at the 
same time kept in gear, and taking their fair proportion of the load 




without slipping 5 they carry about 85 ijer cent, of the weight of the 
engine. The engine is steered from the foot-plate, so that the entire 
management of driving, steering, and working the crane is performed by 
one person. The engraving represents an engine fitted with a crane 
to lift up to 2 tons. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 523 

THE "aROOSOKAT," OR PORTABLE TRAVELING CRANE. 

Invented by Mr, N. Wonlarlarsky, St. Petersburg, Russia, and patented in the United 
States, Austria, England, Belgium, and Russia. 

This machine is designed to form a convenient means of transship- 
ment of materials where the distance is too short for a railroad track 
or too long for unloading by the ordinary cranes. It combines the two 
elements of cheapness and portability. 

It is essentially a portable overhead traveling crane, supported at in- 
tervals upon tripods, or in some cases two-legged supports, as shown in 
the figures. . • 

Fig. 1 shows the apj)aratus as used in unloading a vessel, conveying 
the merchandise to a distance, and depositing it upon a railway truck. 
Fig. 2 is a side view of the tramway beam, with the suspension eyes and 
truck. Fig. 3 is a short section in two views of the same, showing the 
construction of truck and beam. Fig. 4 shows a cheaper form of beam 
and truck, with the former made of wood, as well as the wheels of the 
latter. Fig. 5 shows the splice for joining two or more lengths of beam 

As shown, the beam is built up of plate and angle iron, riveted, and 
consists of two separate stringers, held together at proper intervals by 
appropriate cross- webs. At intervals, governed by the strength of the 
beam and the intended maximum load, are placed pieces in form of a 
staple of plate iron, riveted to the inside of the stringers, and to the 
crown of which the suspension eyes are secured. As shown in Fig. 3, 
the beam is encompassed by a yoke, the crown of which passes below 
it, and on the inside of the upper ends of which the wheels of the truck 
are pivoted, the suspension rods passing between the wheels. In this 
way there is free passage from end to end for the truck, and the whole 
may be supported at as many points as may be found necessary. 

In Fig. 2, is shown a stationary staple for securing the ends downward 
when used with but one support, as seen in the background. Fig. 1. The 
beams are made in sections of about 28 feet long, as many of which may 
be jointed together as is necessary for the distance to be traveled, the 
splice being made by placing the piece (Fig. 5) inside the beam with four 
square-bodied bolts passing through, as shown at A, Fig. 2. 

This apparatus is designed to convey loads up to about 18 cwt. In 
existing machinery for the hoisting and transporting of materials — aside 
from the permanent overhead traveling crane — the horizontal distance 
through which the load may be moved is quite limited, confining this 
species of machinery to heavy loads, if profitably done ; and with such 
the apparatus in question does not compete for public favor, except 
where such is used for comparatively light loads. The ordinary swing- 
ing crane is vastly more expensive, and very much less efficacious, where 
loads of a ton or less are to be moved, while this portable crane is far 



524 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 




1: 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



525 



superior in tbe distance through which loads may be convej^ed, is cheaper, 
and above all quite portable. For the discharge of goods of uniform 
shape, such as bags, casks, cases, and bales, or of such materials as coal, 
sand, stone, &c., which readily conform to some uniform kind of recep- 
tacle, it is very well adapted, as the chair, as shown on the right (Fig. 1), 
the chime hooks, as seen in the center, or any convenient form of sup- 
port for the particular load, may be attached to the truck yoke. 



h 


R 1. 



[2I 






r Kr 




Fj«. 4. 



B 






-blG. 6. 



f'iG. 5. 



The tripods are generally about 20 feet high, but cau, of course, be 
made to suit the particular work for or locality in which it is to be 
used. The beam is suspended from these by means of a block and fall, 
in order to adjust the beam to the inclination necessary to convey the 
load from end to end, which in this machine is done by the action of 
gravitation. This feature in it will limit its length, as, if constructed 
for too great distance, the required elevation of the goods at the higher 
end will be an inconvenient amount. The work of horizontal transport 
in this case is, of course, done in the hoisting of the load to the high end 
of the beam 5 but it is doubtless economically performed in that way, as 
generally the same manual labor which is required to raise the load to 
the required height suffices to guide it to the lower end, or place of de- 
posit, returning the empty truck and sling by the same means. 

This instrument is advantageously used for distances ui3 to 100 feet. 
For the suspension of the beams from the tripods, the Weston differen- 
tial block is preferably used, as it gives a convenient means of adjust- 
ing the heights and of securing it when adjusted. A very convenient 
way of using it for unloading vessels is to connect the support for the 
load to the truck-yoke with a self-checking block and fall, or a differ- 
ential block of the single-sheave kind, and use the same fall for a guy 
to regulate the descent, and for lowering away at the discharging end 
of the crane. In this way light loads may be transshipped very rap- 
idlv. 



526 INTERXATIOXAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

PICKERING'S PULLEY-BLOCK. 

Manufactured by Charles Merrill & Sons, 556 Grand Street, New York. 



LIFTING CHAIN 
WHEEL. 



PINION 



FIXED WHEEL 




ENDLESS CHAIN 
WHEEL. 



The advantages claimed for 
these blocks are that they are 
simjde, strong, and powerful; they 
sustain the load and cannot slip; 
the hand c-hain being independent 
of the lijting chain, it does not ac- 
cumulate under the foot as the 
weight is raised. The chain does 
not 'kuxk or jam in the upper block- 
Very easy to work, and not liable 
to get out of order. 

The lifting-chain being supplied 
with a hook at each end, no lower- 
ing is required for a f'csh load. 

Longer or shorter chains can be 
changed by simi^ly unscrewing the 
nuts. 

Tlie working parts run on steel, 
and, being internal, are not liable 
to accident, and are free from dust 
or dirt. 

Having two chains independent of each other, they work with less 
friction and more speed than most pulley-blocks. They can be worked 
at any angle, thereby enabling the workman to stand from under the 
load. ' 




Pickering's pulley-block 
to hoist 3 tons. 



Pickering pulley-block 
of 3 tons and upwards. 





PKICES. 








T"-'- \s."' 


Lift. 

Feet. 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
10 
10 
12 
12 


Price. 


Extra lift, 
per foot. 


J ton 


' Pounds. 
24 


$22 50 
25 00 
30 00 
40 00 
^0 00 
75 00 
95 00 
150 00 
300 00 


$1 00 
1 20 


^ ton 


'35 


1 ton 


::;:::: i U 


1 50 


IJ tons 


' 95 


1 75 


2 tons 


110 


2 00 


3 tons 


190 


2 20 


4 tons 


i4n 


2 40 


6 tons 


3 75 


10 tons 


6 00 









THE ENGINEER SECTIOA. 



527 



WESTON'S DIFFERENTIAL PULLEY-BLOCKS. 
Made by Yale Lock Mauufacturiug Company, Stamford, Conn. 

Advantages claimed. — They hold the load suspended at any point. 
They never ^' run down '' under any circumstances. One man can hoist 
1,000 pounds with ease with the small sizes, and more with the larger 
ones. Lifting and lowering are effected by pulling opposite sides of the 
slack chain. The chain will not twist or mount the sheaves. One man 
with this tackle is better than four or five with the ordinary double 
block. 

PRICE LIST. 



Plain blocks. 


Piice. Wltli sprocket -n-beel. | Price. 

1 


Geared. 


Price. 


^ ton, complete 

J ton, complete 

1 ton, complete 

1^ tons, complete 

2 tons, complete 

3 tons, complete 








$50 


25 00 2 tons, complete 

30 00 3 tons, complete 

40 00 4 tons, complete 

50 00 1 5 tons, complete 

70 00 , 6 tons, complete 


$75 
100 
140 
200 
300 
400 
500 


! 2 tons, complete 

3 tons, complete 

4 tons, comi)lete 

5 tons, complete 

6 tons, complete 

8 tons, complete 


80 
120 
170 
225 
300 




li 10 tons complete 


1 10 tons complete 








1 





Hoists are made to work by hand, horse, or steam power. 

The following descriptions were kindly furnished by Mr. Weston : 

W.eston's patented improvements are primarily applicable to the various forms of 
hand-worked lioists, including the simple "wheel and axle," the " winch or crab" 
having its winding drum driven by toothed gearing and crank handles, or by endless 
hand-ropes, derrick or jib cranes, traveling cranes, and, generally, to all hoists con- 
structed for hauling in and paying out a rope or chain. The new features are — 

1st. A ^^dink^^ friction hralce and clutch, compact in form, but possessing friction sur- 
faces of large area. 

2d. Circular inclines, or screw faces, operated by a hand wheel, for controlling the 
brake, and by which also the brake action is made automatic. 

3d. Ratchet connections between the shafts and gearing, by which the speed and power 
can be changed instantly while hoisting. 

4th. Traversing and traveling motions in traveling cranes, obtained by wire cables or 
chains, and operated from one point, without the use of gearing and heavy cross- 
shafts. 

The disk brake is placed within the wheel or drum, for which a frictional connection 
is required. The other novel features are equally compact. 

Among the practical advantages are the following : In crank-handled winch or crab 
the operator can lower the load by simply pushing the handle backwards continu- 
ously. The handle cannot recoil upon him, the load remaining at rest the instant the 
handle is released. Such a winch affords absolute security in varying the angle of a 
crane-jib, setting it inwards or outwards when loaded without risk, and giving the 
utmost dispatch in handling loads. 

In auother arrangement of a crank-handled winch a slight backward motion of the 
handle releases the drum wholly, so that the unloaded chain can run off at once. 
Should a load be suspended, its descent can be controlled or arrested at pleasure, by 
pushing the handle forward slightly in the direction for hoisting. 

The crank-handles alone give complete control of the hoist at all times, with per- 
fect safety to the operator. The last-named arrangement is well suited for hand- 
worked pile-drivers, as the operators can run off the chains and drop the "follower" 
the instant a blow is struck without losing hold of the cranks by simply "backing" 
them a few inches. 



528 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



\£i 




Plain 



With sprocket wheel. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



529 



Both arraugements of a handled winch present the 
same external appearance. The construction of each 
is shown in section, Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (page 53.0). In these 
examples the disks and winches are shown as applied to 
the pinion and rachet wheel of the winch. This in- 
volves less cost than to apply them directl3^to the Avind- 
ing drnm ; the latter being the preferable plan, and the 
one always adopted for large hoists, as it permits the 
gearing to be at rest in lowering the load. 

Figs. 4 and 5 (page 531) show a wheel and axle hoist 
Tvith the brake in the drum, the inclines being replaced 
by an ordinary screw thread npou the shaft; the whole 
arranged for rapid lowering, under control of the end- 
less hoisting rope. 

In double or treble geared winches the change of 
speeds is effected by reversing the rotary motion of the 
cranks; a sej)arate hand wheel or crank being pro- 
vided for the self-arrested safety lowering motion. 
The ratchet connections for thus changing speeds are 
contained within the pinions, and are as strong and 
durable as the shafts carrying them. In a "three- 
speed" overhead hoist, to be operated from below, two 
endless hand chains afford the choice of either one of 
the three speeds in hoisting, with the self-arrested 
safety motion for lowering direct from the barrel, 
without disturbing the gearing and shafts. The first 
of these endless hand chains gives a treble purchase 
if pulled upon one side, and upon the other side a 
single purchase ; the second gives a direct hoisting 
motion on one side, for coiling up the slack chain rap- 
idly or hoisting a light load ; and on its other side it . 
gives the self-arrested safety lowering motion, or 
serves to run oft' the unloaded chain rapidly from the 
barrel when required. The motions are each capable 
of instant use without the intervention of the clutches 
or levers encumbering ordinary hoists, the use of 
w^hich always involves loss of time, danger, and some- 
times accidents. 

The traveling crane. Fig. 6 (page 532), when arranged 
to be worked from below, has all its horizontal motions 
controlled by two endless hand chains or ropes hung 
from two sprocket wheels upon the crab or truck E, in 
the sketch, which is a plan or bird's-eye view ; G G^ = 
are the rails or tracks, spanned by a girder or bridge, | 
-F, which has the usual trolley wheels at its ends i^^ 
F^. The truck E has the usual traveling wheels for 
traversing upon the bridge F, and it may suspend a 
differential pulley for hoisting the load, or carry a gen- 
eral hoist and winding drum of any desired capacity. 
Upon pivots fixed to the truck E, are carried the 
sprocket wheels A B and C D. Each one has cast upon 
it a small chain wheel, to gear with and grasp the chain 
cables, A B acting upon the chain 1, and C D upon ff. 
The cables are strained at their extremities by weights 
or springs to keep them " taut." Guiding sheaves are 
fixed to the bridge, where the cables turn at an angle, 
34 CEN 



fiu. 



i!J^ 



Geared. 



530 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



and also on each side of the chain wheels to hold the cable in gear with them, but 
the latter are omitted :^om sketch. The four pendent sides of the two hand chains 

Fig. 1. foisting Crab, lower ecL by hcmdZe coTttinuously, 

£of sZaw Zowerinff. 







Koistinff Crcub, stopped hy TiancUe' in lowervn^y 

p^ /or qtdck lowering. 




Pitf. 3, Transverse' Secttori o£ hoih/ Crcvbs 




7 8 9 20.lTlthe& 



or ropes can be referred to as the sides a, h, c, d. By pulling a and c downwards 
together, the truck E is propelled thus — * along the bridge. By pulling & and d 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



531 



together, the truck moves backward thus < — on the bridge. In both cases the chain 
wheels rotate together in the same direction, traversing over the parallel cables, 
crossing the bridge, and taking the truck with them. By pulling a and I together 



Scuoh Jfoist, 
etcfppecL ly rope- tru lowering, 
/or qulch lowering. 



Kg.^. ^J^cl JEle^attoTL, Scale. 1^0*!^ / 




532 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



the truck remains at rest on tlie bridge, but the bridge is propelled | towards the 
north end of railway. By pulling & and c the bridge is moved towards I the south 
end. In the two last-named cases the sprocket and chain wheels are rotated in con- 
trary directions. Diagonal motions are obtained by pulling a, &, and c and d singly. 
Thus a gives motion in this direction / & /. c V, ^ \. These diagonal motions 
are of course due to the combined movement of the truck crosswise of the bridge, 
and of the bridge lengthwise of the railway. The movement of the truck upon the 
bridge is due to the direct pull on the one cable so acted on. 



J^ort/i. . 



^^m 



^ 



T^^Si 



STi 



.frytClL 



T 



Fig. 6. 

The drag of the idle sprocket wheel and attachments, upon the other cable,- as the 
truck moves, tends to propel one end of the bridge towards the fixed extremity of 
tha(t cable ; the other end of the bridge is pulled ]3arallel the same way, by the cable 
directly acted on. The two forces acting respectively upon the ends of the bridge are 
not equal, but are sufiflcieutly so, to keep the bridge approximately at right angles 
with the railway. The direct traveling motion of the bridge upon the'^railway is 
square to the rails, with no tendency to jam, or run off, however wide the span, irre- 
spective of the position on the bridge of the track which carries the sprocket wheels. 

The disk-brakes used iu the grapple dredging machines'of the Ameri- 
can Dredging Company, at Philadelphia, have 150 square feet of fric- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 533 

tion surface. The disks are between 6 and 7 feet in diameter. Tliey 
are compressed by a "toggle" pinching apparatus, operated by a long 
lever. The chain worked thereby is of If -inch iron, and capable of car- 
rying a maximum load of 30 tons. Oue man handles two of these 
drums with ease, controlling the descent of the load upon either chain 
with precision by direct friction. The wear upon these brakes is inap- 
preciable. As the surfaces are flat there is no possibility of sticking, 
and the transmitted force is always a true and constant multiple of the 
initial j)ressure applied to compress the friction faces. 

DISK FRICTIONS. 

The apparatus consists of two series of friction disks, arranged alter- 
nately with each other upon a common axis, one series being carried by 
one shaft, and the other series connected to the other shaft or wheel 
which is required to be coupled with the first shaft. The disks on the 
the first shaft cannot turn independently of it, but can slide lengthwise 
upon it tt)wards or from each other; this wseries of disks are for conven- 
ience called the "shaft disks" in the following description. Arranged 
alternately with them are the disks of the other series, which have each 
a circular central opening sufficiently large to clear the shaft entirely, 
but at their outer edge they are slotted or made polygonal or otherwise 
fitted in their outline to an external drum or cylinder containing them, 
so that they cannot rotate independently of the dram, but may slide 
longitudinally within it. These disks are called for distinction '' the 
intermediate disks," and the drum containing them forms part of the 
spur-wheel that is required to be connected to the shaft with a coupling 
or break action, or the drum is attached to a second shaft lying in line 
with the first, with which the second shaft is required to be coupled. 
So long as no longitudir al comi^ression is applied to the disks, the shaft 
disks with the shaft carrying them are free to rotate independently of the 
intermediate disks, and the drum containing them ; but upon compress- 
ing the disks together longitudinally into frictional contact, the rotary 
motion of one series is either transmitted wholly to the other series or is 
controlled or arrested by friction against the disks of the other series, 
and the double series of disks acts thus either as a coupling or as a brake. 
The great advantage arising from the alternate arrangement of the disks 
is that the frictional effect of any i)ressure ai)plied to couple them is re- 
peated as many times as there are disks in the two series; that is, the 
number of all the disks is a constant multiplier for the friction pro- 
duced between a single pair of the rubbing surfaces b}^ any given pres- 
sure. 

It may be remarked as an illustration that this principle of the rep- 
etition of frictional surfaces is the basis of the structure of ordinary 
hempen ropes. In that case contiguous fibers present their surfaces to 
each other in frictional contact, and the frictional adhesion between 
them is due to the initial i^ressure given by the original twist in the 



534 



INTERNATIOXAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



Strands, and to the resultant pressure arising from the oblique direction 
of the strain upon the Hbers under a load; and a rope of an inch diameter 
is stronger than ahiilf-inch rope because of the greater number of fibers 




"Westons patent disk frictions. — Section. 

in frictional union which it contaius. The '' coupling " pressure upon 
the fibers maj^ be wholly removed by completely untwisting the strands 
of the rope; and the strength of the rope will then have disappeared 
simultaneously with the loss of the frictional union of its fibers. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



535 



The materials and structure of the disks may be very various. For 
the severest strains both series of disks are made of iron, one series being 
faced with wood segments placed endwise of the 'grain. A coupling 




Weston patent disk frictions. — Elevation. 



capable of very high duty, and one very compact in form, is attained by 
employing thin sheet steel for the material of both series of disks, and 
facing one series with leather faces on both sides, the leather being at- 
tached by fine copper wire passed through small holes in the steel disks. 



536 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

For brake purposes iron aud wood disks are employed, and the wood 
disks are thoroughly saturated with linseed oil and the iron disks made 
smooth; the wear of the disks then becomes imperceptible. In couse- 
qnence of the large amount of rubbing surface obtained, the lowest co- 
efficit-nt of friction suffices, and the brake may therefore be always lu- 
bricated, if desired, and is still sufficiently powerful. The pitch line or 
center of friction 6f the disks is the circle dividing their working faces 
into two annular areas. By enlarging the central opening in the inter- 
mediate disks, so as to make their working face a narrow annular 
ring, the pitch line is thrown further outw^ards from the shaft, and the 
I)Ower of the couplino' is thereby increased, by increasing the leverage 
at which it acts ; but for brake purposes this reduction of the actual 
area is not always desirable, as it reduces the amount of wearing sur- 
face, though increasing the efficiency of the brake. 

For a coupling required to transmit motion and to cease doing so in- 
stantly at definite points in a revolution with exact precision, the in- 
termediate disks are sprung apart by means of small springs placed 
near their edges, and the sbaft disks are sprung apart by small spiral 
springs in their bosses. This plan of springing the disks apart when 
the pressure is withdrawn renders the coupling applicable to vertical 
or inclined shafts, or to a shaft having other motions than simply 
round its own axis. By employing springs of graduated strength 
between the disks, a coupling or brake may be arranged for obtaining 
a gradually increasing frictional action by making only one pair of 
faces come into action first; and during the time that this one ])air 
only is in contact the frictional action between them can be gradually 
augmented by a gently increasing pressure, until the springs sepa- 
rating the next pair of disks are sufficiently compressed to bring these 
also into action, and so on until any required number of disks are in 
action. When all the disks have thus been brought into action the fric- 
tional resistance of a brake constructed upon this plan will still continue 
to increase under a further increase of pressure, until all relative motion 
between the two series of disks has ceased. This arrangement for bring- 
ing the disks successively into action will give a graduated effect, uni- 
formly increasing by delicate aud scarcely perceptible grades up to the 
full power of the brake; and it might be advantageously apijlied for 
such purposes as arresting rai)id rotation in centrifugal drying ma- 
chines. 

WILLIAMSON BROS., PATENT FRICTION HOISTING ENGINES. 

Corner Riclimond aud South streets, Philadelphia. 

The manufacturer claims that it is easily worked, very durable, and 
noiseless in working. Only one lever is required to be operated for 
hoisting and lowering, and with the governor valve attached, the same 
lever operates to slow down the engine immediately the break is thrown 
on. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



537 



The operation for ordinary hoisting is as follows with the governor- 
valve attachment : 

See that the lever is thrown over, so that the break is on, and the 
wheels out of gear. 




Double drum hoistiug engine. 

^The stop valve, letting steam from the boiler, is then opened \ but no 
steam can enter the cylinder, as the governor is shut when the break is 
on; the starting cock, Avhich admits the steam between the governor 
valve and cylinder, is then opened sufficiently to allow the engine to run 
slowly, and it is ready for hoisting. 

The lever, being moved over, brings the gearing together, at the same 
time opening the governor valve, which allows all the steam that passes 



538 INTERNA TIONAL EXHIBITION, 1 876. 

through the stop valve to enter the cylinder, and the load is thus raised 
at any required speed, due to the opening of the stop valve. 

When the load is at the required height, the lever is thrown back on 
the break, the governor valve at the same time shuts off the steam, and 
the engine slows down ; then, by easing up on the lever the break al- 
lows the load to lower at any speed that is desired, whilst the engine is 
at the same time running ahead slowly. 

This engine can be made with a long shaft connection, so that any 




The deck lioister. 

number of hoisting drams can be run off it without changing the motion 
of the engine. A pump or other machinery can also be attached, which 
will not interfere with the hoisting, as the engine is always running one 
way. 

The drums of the donble-drum engine work independently of each 
other, the operation of each being the same as above described. 

These engines are adapted for general hoisting, as deck holsters, wharf 
purposes, miners' and contractors' uses. 



HYDRAULIC PRESSES. 

COMPOUND HYDRAULIC PRESS. 

Manufactured by Bohn, Craue &l Co., Newark, N. J. 

Peculiarities. — It consists of a series of iron shelves, live to ten in num- 
ber, connected together by rods and sustaining a series of flexible bags. 
These bags are connected by tubes and have a pipe leading to the tank 
or water supply into which steam can be admitted at 50 pounds or any 
required pressure. 

When the water is turned on it flows into all the bags at the same 
pressure; on each bag lies an iron plate connected by vertical projections 
to the plates above and below. If there are 50 pounds' pressure, a 10-inch 
bag will lift 5,000 pounds, arid ten such bags 50,000 pounds. 

Advantages clauned. — It uses low pressnre and is consequently free 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



539 



from all leakage, loss of power, aud troublesome packiDgs; it has 
neither pump, crauk, valves, or belt to get out of order; it has large 
water passages, aud moves up to its work the moment the water is 
turned on; if neither steam nor water pressure is available, a common 




Crane & Bohn's compound hydraulic press. 

force-pump can be attached by which the requisite pressure of 50 pounds 
to the square inch can be obtained. 

These presses are of short stroke, 2 to 6 inches, and are therefore pro- 
vided with either a screw adjustment in the head or an auxiliary move- 
ment for the platin to clamp the material before the pressure is applied 



540 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, id,-] 6. 



LITHOGRAPHY. 

METHOD FOR REPRODUCING MAPS AND DRAWINGS, BY CHARLES ECK- 
STEIN, 

Terlinical director of the War Office at the Hague, the Netherlands. 

The usefulness of cliromo4itliogTapliic maps is universally acknowl- 
edged, but the great number of stones required for printing numerous 
shades and the use of skilled workmen make them costly. 

In the Eckstein process the tints and shades form themselves and the 
number of stones as well as of primary colors is limited to three, the first 
for blue, the second for yellow, and the third for red. 

The stones are prepared as follows : 

On each stone is printed a photograph of the map or drawing to be 
reproduced. The stone is then polished and coated with a mixture of 
wax, asphalt, stearine, and soda, forming a thin film. It is then cov- 
ered with parallel lines in two directions by means of a line-drawing 
machine which removes the coating without cutting the stone. These 
lines are from .005 to .0002 of an inch apart. The parts to be left white 
are coated with asphalt and the stone subjected to an acid bath for half 
a minute. 

The stone is now washed and dried, and those parts which are to he 
etched but once, as representing the lightest shades, are covered with 
lithographic ink to prevent further etching and to prepare the cross 
lines for receiving printing ink. 

The second shade is obtained by exposing the stone to the action of 
the acid but for one minute longer. The stone is washed and dried and 
this shade is covered with lithographic ink as before, and the operation 
continued till the last shade is obtained, after which the stone is washed 
in turpentine and all the asphalt and ink removed. The stone is then 
ready for printing. 

As the acid corrodes the stone very evenly the cross lines give a level 
tint deepening with each etching. 

The operation can be performed by rather inexperienced hands, the 
covering of the sufficiently etched i^arts being done with a hair j)encil; 
only the corroding or etching process requires strict attention as the 
variety of shades is entirely dependent on this part of the work. 

Every tint can be obtained by superimposing two or three colors of 
different strength. Equal shades of blue and yellow give green j a 
light shade of yellow on blue and red gives gray, and so on. 

On the exhibited map there were 228 different shades of color printed 
from three stones. And the shading on some copies of i^hotographs in 
one color was excellent ; at a short distance the copies might easily be 
mistaken for the photographs themselves, only the outlines are sharper 
and clearer, like an engraving. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



541 



METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

HENDERSON'S SELF-REGISTERING BOILING-POINT THERMOMETER. 



Made by James F. Hicks Loudon. 




Henderson's self-registeriug boiling-point thermuiueler. 

The difficulty of replacing an exhausted supply of spirit for the lamp^ 
and the probability of waste by spilling, are familiar to those who have 
made hypsometrical experiments. The api3aratus, of which a cut is here 
given, has the following advantages : 

1. The water is made to boil by the heat of a candle/which gives a uni- 



542 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



form source of heat ; and a measured quautity of water (about one-quar- 
ter ounce being used, the results are extremely uniform. Composition 
caudles are easily carried, and are now obtainable almost everywhere. 
Tbe piece of caudle, about two inches long, which is used for boiling 
the tbermometer, is pushed up by means of a spiral spring, as in an 
ordinary carriage lamp. 

2. The thermometer IS a self- registering maximum one, which can be 
carried to some distance without moving the index. 

3. The brass tube in which the thermometer is boiled forms the case 
for carrying it in the pocket. 

4- To prevent the detached piece of mercury, which forms the index, 
from being shaken down into the bulb, the thermometer is made with a 
constriction just above the bulb, but should the index, in spite of this 
arrangement, coalesce with the bulk of the mercury in the bulb, the 
instrument may again be made self registering by gently tapping the 
bulb of the tbermometer on the palm of the hand until a small portion 
of mercury breaks off into the neck. The operation requires some 
delicacy and dexterity, but may be performed with due care. 

Henderson's boiling-point apparatus, complete with one thermometer, 
£2 7s. 6^. 

Extra thermometer, in India-rubber lined metal case, los. 



DEEP-SEA THERMOMETKRS. 

There are three modifications of thermometers for the registration of 




Six's deep-sea. 

deep-s«a maximum and minimum temperatures, but that at present in 
general use in the Royal l^avy (on board H. M. S. Challenger) is a mod- 
ification of Six's. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



543 



In the earlier experiments made for ascertaining the temperature of 
the ocean at a depth of 15,000 feet, where th^ pressure is equal to three 
tons on the square inch, it was found that a considerable error occurred 
in the indications in consequence of this enormous pressure; accordingly, 
the central elongated bulb of the ordinary Six's thermometer is short- 
ened and inclosed in an outer bulb nearly filled with spirit, which, while 
effectually relieving the thermometer bhlb from undue pressure, allows 
any change to be at once transmitted to it, and thus secure the regis- 
tration of the exact temperature. The arrangement possesses the fur- 
ther advantage of making the instrument stronger, more compact, and 
more capable of resisting such comparatively rough treatment as it 
would receive on board shiji. 

Deep-sea m aximum and minimum register in g thermometer as described, 
in ebonite mounting, divisions and figures on German silver, raised 
scales at side, acting also as a protection to the thermometer, in round 
copper case, with hinged door and clasps, £1 10s. 

Johnson-s deep-sea metallic thermometer depends for its indications 
on the unequal contraction and expansion of compound metallic bars. 
Strips of brass and steel are riveted together, and when heated the 
brass expands more than the steel, the bar will be found to assume a 
slight curve in one direction, while a contraction of the brass in excess 
of the steel from the reduction of temperature will impart a curve in 
the opposite direction. £4 10.s'. 

NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA'S PATENT DEEP-SEA SELF-REGISTERINGr THERMOMETER, 

This contrivance has no indices or springs, and its indications are by 
the column of mercury only. The bulb of the thermometer is so pro- 
tected as to resist the pressure of the ocean, which varies according to 
depth, being at 3,000 fathoms about 3 tons on the square inch. This in- 
strument is, in shape, like a siphon, with parallel legs all in one piece, 
and has a continuous communication, as in the accompanying Fig. 1. 
The scale of the thermometer is piroted on a center, and is attached in 
a perpendicular ijosition to a simple apparatus. In its descent the ther- 
mometer acts as an ordinary instrument; but as soon as the descent 
ceases, and a reverse motion is given to the line, the instrument turns 
once on its center, first bulb uppermost, and afterwards bulb down- 
wards. Fig. 1 shows the position of the mercury after the instrument 
has been thus turned on its center. A is the bulb ; B the outer coating 
or x)rotecting cylinder; Ois the space of rarefied air, which is reduced 
if the outer casing be compressed ; D is a small glass plug which insures 
that none but the mercury in the tube can be transferred into the indi- 
cating column; E is an enlargement made in the bend, to enable the 
mercury to pass quickly from one tube to another in revolving; and F 
is the indicating tube or thermometer proper. When the thermometer 
is put in motion, and as soon as the tube has acquired a slightly oblique 
position (Fig. 2), the mercury breaks off at the point D, runs into the 



544 



INTERNATIONA I. EXHIBITION, 1876. 



curved and enlarged portion E, and eventnallj^ falls into tube F, when 
this tube resumes its original position. The contrivance for turning the 
thermometer over at the bottom of the sea is a vertical propeller to which 
the instrument is pivoted. Tlie engraving (Fig. 2) shows the general 



® 



40 




Fig. 1, 



Fig. 2. 



arrangement, T being the thermometer, S a metal screw connected with 
the frame of the thermometer by a wheel and pinion movement at W; 
St is the stop for arresting the movement of tbe thermometer when it 
has made one revolution. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



545 



The same principle is used in making a self-recording thermometer 
which records the temperature at any given hour, day or night, that 
may be desired. 

This thermometer is similar in construction to the deep-sea ther- 
mometer just described, the revolution in this case being effected by 
attaching it to a clock which is wound up and set to the desired time 
in the same manner as an alarm. This instrument will be found use- 
ful where it is desired to take observations at fixed hours in the ab- 
sence of the observer and for the synchronous system about to be 
adopted at all meteorological stations throughout the globe. 



MERCURIAL MINIMUM THERMOMETER. 



The indications of this thermometer are perfectly reliable arid it can- 
not be put out of order. 




Mercurial minimum. 

Hitherto alcohol only was used to ascertain minimum temperatures, 
although it was well known that for scientific investigation alcohol did 
not give accurate results. The sketch shows the construction of the 
bulb. 

HICKS'S FLEXIBLE BULB MERCURIAL BAROMETER. 

This instrument is constructed to meet the requirements of tourists 
and surveyors where portability, accuracy, and strength are desiderata. 
It cannot be put out of order except by actual breakage, and its weight 
does not exceed 1 pound. It consists of a flat bulb of flexible glass 
filled with mercury, exhausted of all air, and hermetically sealed at 
both ends. It looks like a thermometer with a very long tube; the pres- 
sure of the air is communicated to the mercury through the flexible 
bulb. The inches are divided on the glass tube itself, which is mounted 

35 CEN 



546 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



on a metal scale witli small attached thermometer and sliding scale to 
compensate for temi^erature, and the whole is inclosed in a morocco or 
solid leather case. Price £5 5s. 



HIGHLY SENSITIVE THERMOMETERS. 



Made by Jas. F. Hicks, 8 Hatton Garden, London, E.G. 

Mr. Hicks makes several highly sensitive thermometers, and accom- 
plishes this result by the shape of the bulb, m mercurial thermome- 
ters he makes the bulb either spiral or in the shape of a gridiron ; 100^ 





JBiuhlv sensitive mercurial. 



Si^iial, highly sensitive. 
Gridirons highly sensitive. 



Bottle Itulb, hiohlv sensitive. 



F. extends over 18 inches on the latter instrument so that it can be read 
to one-tenth of a degree by direct observation. 

In spirit thermometers the bulb is either '' bottle " shape or " cylin- 
der-jacket" shape, the latter being most sensitive. 

The bottle-shaped bulb is cylindrical, with the bottom pushed in as 
much as possible, an exaggerated imitation of some wine bottles. The 
air, or other fluid medium in which it may be exposed, acting upon the 
hollow as well as the outside surface, and the stratum of spirit between 
the glass surfaces being thin, the thermometer is found to be very sen- 
sitive. 

The cylinder-jacket bulb consists of a long cylinder of glass, hollow, 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 



547 



and about which a second cylinder is blown and united at the open ends 
so as to leave a thin space between them to contain the spirit. Tlie 
stem of the thermometer is connected to a middle point in the outer 
€3iinder. In action it is the same as, but is far more sensitive than, 
the "bottle-bnlb." 




Cylinder jacket, liigUly sensitive. 

Other thermometers depend for their sensitiveness on the shape of 
their bulbs, the most common forms being the gridiron and spiral, as 
shown in the cuts herewith. 



PILE-DEIYEE8. 

SHAW'S PATENT aUNPOWDER PILE-DRIVER. 

Tlie Gunpowder Pile Driver Company, No. 10 South Delaware Avenue, PMladel- 

pbia. Pa. 

The i)rincipa] of action and manner of operation of this apparatus is 
as follows : 

A small hoisting-engine hoists the ram and gun to the top of the ma- 
chin e, where the ram is held in place by the friction-brake. The pile is 
then hoisted into position and the gun lowered upon it, the recess at 
the lower end of the guQ covering the pile-head and securely holding it 
in position directly underneath. A cartridge is then dropped in the 
gun, the operator releases the brake, and the ram falls with its piston 
entering the bore of the gun (which is made slightly funnel-shaped at 
the muzzle), and, by compressing the air, exerts a gradually increasing- 
downward pressure upon gun and pile, till the inertia of both is more 
or less entirely overcome ; the cartridge is crushed by the piston and ig- 
nited by the heat evolved by the sudden and severe compression of the 
confined air. An explosion immediately ensues, the result of which is 
to violently force the pile downward, and this action is measured by the 
reactionary efiect ux)on the ram, the height to which it is thus thrown. 



548 JNTER NATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

and from a state of rest practically, and applied to the pile while in mo- 
tion. The force due to the fall of the ram, and the explosive force ex- 
erted to throw the latter again into position, are thus at once combined 
and applied to the pile. 

The principal difference of effect between this method and the or- 
dinary hammer appears to be this: In the one case the pile is already 
in motion when a tremendous force is suddenly^bronght to bear upon 
it in the same direction, and in the other case it receives a violent blow 
when at rest, and a considerable portion of the force is exj)ended use- 
lessly in the destruction of the pile head itself before the inertia is 
overcome and motion produced. Hence the necessity of strongly band- 
ing the pile-heads in the latter case, and the utter absence of any neces- 
sity for their protection in the former. 

The ram on its rebound is caught and held by the brake, and the 
operation repeated at pleasure. The cartridges are made of common 
blasting-powder, pressed into cylinders about IJ inches in diameter, 
weighing from 1 to Ih ounces each, and coated with paraffine and plum- 
bago, and are supplied by hand, being tossed into the gun in advance 
of each blow. 

The enormous i)ower developed by the explosion of confined gun- 
powder, as used in this process, calls, in the first place, for a strong and 
rigid framing to resist the sudden and severe strain^imposed upon the 
guides when the apparatus is at work ; and the close-fitting i^lunger 
entering the gun at every stroke requires a good degree of precision in 
the fitting of the guides upon which the ram and gun travel; while the 
application of a friction brake to arrest and retain the heavy ram in 
l^osition, at any point in its travel, involves the use of a special applica- 
tion lor this purpose, and the consideration of other strains incidental 
to its use and to which the framing itself is subjected when not in opera- 
tion. Manifestly the ordinary pile-driver frame is not adapted to this 
new order of things, and several attempts have been made, since this 
discovery, to produce a suitable framing 'that would satisfactorily ful- 
fill all the requisite conditions without being unwieldy, and at a moderate 
cost. The principle involved in the process, and the efficiency of its 
action, were fully demonstrated at the outset, and to successfully 
harness this powerful engine and place it in practical 'operation, under 
safe and easy control, in order to utilize its power — a question of me- 
chanical construction alone — has been the problem under solution ever 
since. 

Referring to the drawings, A is the ram of cast iron, provided with 
its j)lunger, J5, upon the lower end of which is screwed a steel ring or 
band and turned to neatly fit the bore of the gun below, the whol^ weigh- 
ing 1480 pounds. C is the gun of steel manufactured by the McHaffie 
l)rocess and weighing 1,000 pounds. It has a bore 6 J inches in diameter 
and 24 inches deep, pointing upwards, with its mouth slightly bell 
shaped to receive the ram-plunger at each stroke. Its walls are 3J 



© 



\ 




^^ 


m 


^1^ 






u « 


% 


i 


L» 


-'-'^" 


•-,d 



CUNPDWOCR PILE-DRIVER 

fi_r]sr 4 5-c,u-inEB 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 549 

inches thick at the base, and the lower end is recessed to receive the head 
of piles. D, D are the uprights of the frame, each consisting of a'sin- 
gle piece of 6iuch channel bar of rolled iron 45 feet long, andjweighing 
,37 pounds per yard, with their flanges turned outward and the front 
flanges forming the guides or ways up and down which both ram and 
gun move. The uprights are firmly secured together, the proper dis- 
tance apart by means of angle-iron cross-bars, E^ riveted to the rear 
flanges, and spaced 6 feet apart. The side bars, F^ of the framing are 
of angle -iron also, one end of each bar being bolted through]its] vertica 
flange to the inside of the web of the uprights, and to the upper ^flange 
of the cross-bar through its horizontal flange, thus forming a sort of 
gusset stay or brace to stiffen the guides transversely while the_;other 
end is bolted to the ladder 6^, which is made of wood. The cross-head 
R^ at the top of the frame, carries the runner shears J, and cushioning 
piston r7, bolted to its upper and under sides, ^respectively. This fixed 
piston fits into a corresponding bore of the ram to form an air cushion 
and prevent the escape of the ram from the guides Vhen the weight of 
its rebound is limited, as during the first blow with long piles. 

The friction-brake attachment, by which the ram is held in position 
at any i^oint, is located (one on each side of the machine) between the 
flanges of the uprights, on the outer side, and consists of a brake-bar, 
K^ made of very light T-iron, and brake-arms, X, made of McHatiie 
steel, «&c., spaced 2 feet aj)art, and pivoted to the studs If, in the web of 
uprights, and is operated by the lever ^, through the link 0. By this 
arrangement of the brake it is well protected from injury while at work; 
the connections are short and direct, and the strains of its action are 
self-contained in a single part of the machine. The friction surface of 
the bar and guide are likewise effectually protected from any fouling 
action from the gun. 

To facilitate the tool-dressing and accurate fitting of the jaws of the 
gun and ram to this particular sectional form of guides, wrought-iron 
plates, P and (?, are bolted to their rings or arms to form the inside lips 
of the jaws, as shown. The plates P, of the ram, against which the 
brake- bar bears, are made a little thicker than those of the gun, so that 
the brake can be applied to the ram only. The sills of the framing are 
of wood, and rest upon the long rollers ordinarily used on land machines 
to facilitate their movement. The pile-driver frame proper pivots about 
the pin T, in the bed-frame, upon which it rests, affording a limited lat- 
eral movement without sliding the whole machine upon the rollers as 
is usually done. By this means four or five parallel rows of piles 
may be driven along together without moving the machine forward, 
backward, and sidewise for every other pile in alternate rows. 

The hoisting-engine is placed upon the bed timbers of the rear, and 
is provided with a winch head so that all the necessary forward and 
lateral movements may be easily accomplished by steam-power. The 
•diagonal angle-iron braces, B and /S, are merely to give additional stiff- 
ness to the framing. 



550 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



The principal advantage or improvement claimed in the design is the 
overcoming many of the mechanical difficulties which have been in the 
way of producing a much higher and cheaper machine, consistent with 
the requisite strength, efficiency, and durability. Ordinary rolled iron 
has therefore been largely used in its construction, it possessing all the 
necessary qualities. Moreover, the uprights can be made in a contin- 
uous piece, without any joints or bolts incident to the use of cast iron 
or steel in sections, and, unlike them also, the guides require no ma- 
chine-fitting or ftool-dressing, while its superiority over cast iron in 
every essential respect is sufficiently obvious without further comment. 
By this plan a large saving in cost of construction is effected, as well 
as a reduction in weight. 

It will be observed that the jaws of the ram and gun literally grasp 
this form of guides, forming a bearing on each of their four faces, so 
that the uprights support each other, all side thrusts or strains in 
either direction being thus communicated to them both and borne in 
common. 

To facilitate its being taken apart for transportation, the side bars 
are only bolted in place, and by their removal the frame is readily taken 
down. 



PROPELLERS. 

FOWLER STEERING PROPELLER. 




Fig. 1. — Fowler"s steering propeller. 



THE ENGINEER SECTIOA. 



551 



This propeller is hiiDg on a vertical shaft (Fig. 1.) which passes down 
through the overhang at the stern of the vessel, and is supported at its 
lower end by a step or water-bearing attached to a prolongation of the 
keel. 

To the upper end of the shaft a horizontal engine may be attached 
directly, in which case the pillow-block will form the upper support of 
the shaft. But if it is desired to locate the engine in the middle of the 
boat, it can be done by turning the shaft with a properly- constructed 
universal coupling. 




Fig. 2, 

The propeller is formed by horizontal arms (Fig. 2.) radiating from a 
shaft, on the extremities of which are hung vertical blades. In smooth 
water a single arm, attached to the center of the blade, is sufficient, 
while in rough water it is desirable to have the blade supported by an 
arm at each end. The blades are hung on a pivot so as to admit of an 
oscillating motion, which is produced by an eccentric, to the strap of 
which each blade is conn«iCted by an additional arm. This oscillating 
motion causes the blade to feather as it revolves, so as to produce a 
propelling effect, pulling on the forward half of its circuit, and pushing 
on the after half. 



552 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



This propulsion is identical with that of a fish in swimming (Fig. 3), 
the blade having the same travel as the fish's body, and it is effected 
without loss or drag. It is rendered very effective by the fact that the 
water is not lifted by centrifugal action, nor can the wheel run itself 
dry by the excessive application of power, as the water can feed from 
above and below as well as from ahead. Besides, there is not the resist- 
ance of a hub, rudder, and a thick run of the vessel. 




Fig. 3. 

Steering and maneuvering.— The propelling force is always directed 
in the direction of the short radius of the eccentric above mentioned. 
This eccentric is attached to a hollow shaft through which the propeller 
shaft passes. This hollow shaft passes up through the vessel and 
terminates in a worm-wheel with which the helm is connected. The 
steersman can, by turning the helm, turn the eccentric and thereby 
cast the propelling force to any point of the compass, by which means 
he can steer the boat, turn her on her center, back her, and i^erform 
9/ variety of useful evolutions that can be performed by no other vessel j 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 553 

and this, too, without reversiDg the engine, as the propeller always 
revolves in one direction, no matter what evolution is required. 

Among the maneuvers that this propeller can pertbrm may be enu- 
merated : 

1. The ability to turn a boat rapidly on its center and in its own length 
of water an indefinite number of times, either to the right or left, and 
changing suddenly from one to the other. 

2. To wind a boat at the dock in from thirty to one hundred seconds, 
depending on the size of the boat. 

3. To pass out of a slip when the vessel has neither room to back or 
go ahead, by squaring ahead sideways. 

4. To pass around two piles, placed half the length of the boat apart, 
so as to describe a figure 8, both in going bow first and in going stern 
first. 

5. To follow a narrow channel, having a serpentine course, at full 
speed when backing. 

6. To stop the boat when going at full speed, in going her length. 
The steersman is guided in the manner of turning the helm by a 

steering index which points out to him the direction of the thrust of 
the propeller, and the manner in which the wheel should be turned to 
produce a given evolution. For example, if it is desired that the boat 
shall move ahead the index is made to point ahead by turning the 
helm ; and so of any other evolution. 

Lightness of draught. — The Fowler wheel has but half the draught of 
water of the screw propeller. It is well adapted to shoal water on this 
account, and it is very well adapted to rough water, as it can be put so low 
in the water that it will not lift out as the vessel pitches, and it is not liable 
to be deranged by coming in contact with ice floating on the surface. 



PUMPTOG MAOHIKERY. 

The display of pumps is very large and includes pumi)S of every de 
scription and for all purposes. Only those will be mentioned which are 
specially suitable for engineering puri)oses, such as for emi^ tying cais- 
sons, graving docks, &c., reclamation of submerged lands and the like. 

One of the exhibits deserves special mention as it is a model of the 
largest pumping machinery in the world, erected at Ferrara, Northern 
Italy, 1873-'4. In describing it I copy from the catalogue of the makers, 
John and Henry Gwynne, Engineers, 89 Cannon street, E. C, Loudon, 
England. 

The sketch (page 554) shows one set of these enormous Pumping En- 
gines, which are indisputably the largest set of pumping machinery in the 
world. The following description of this machinery appeared in "En- 
gineering" of July 25, 1873 : 

A few montLsago we brieflj^ recorded the fact that Messrs. John & Henry Gwynne, of 
the Hammersmith Iron works, Hammersmith, liad commeuced the construction of by 



554 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBIIION, 1876. 



far tlie largest set of centrifugal pumping machinery yet undertaken, this machinery 
being intended for employment on the reclamation of the Ferrara marshes, in Northern 
Italy. The tract to be reclaimed extends over an area of nearly 200 square miles, and 
the work to be done by the pumps consists in raising a little over 2,000 tons per minute 
for a mean lift of 7 feet 3 inches (the maximum lift being about 12 feet), and delivering 
it into the river Volano, at Codigoro, where the pumps are to be erected. To perform 
this work, Messrs. John & Henry Gwynne are constructing eight pumps, these pumps 
being disposed in pairs, and each pair being driven by a pair of compound engines. 
The first pair of these pumps, with their engines, have just been completed, and dur- 
ing the present week we had an opportunity of inspecting them at the works of the 
makers, prior to their shipment to Italy. Quite apart from their exceptionally large 
size, these engines and pumps are, as respects design and workmanship, perfect models 
of their class, and some particulars of them will therefore be regarded with interest 
by numbers of our readers. We may add that on a future occasion, when the works 
are further advanced, we hope to illustrate the arrangements fully. 

It is a very simple matter to state that certain pumps have to raise 2,000 tons 01 
water per minute, but it is more difficult to appreciate what such a performance 
really means; and before describing the Ferrara pumping machinery, therefore, we 




propose to state a few facts which will enable our readers to obtain a clear idea ot 
the work to be done. When working at the mean lift of 7 feet 3 inches, each of the 
eight pumps is constructed to discharge 57,000 gallons per minute, the aggregate dis- 
charge from the eight pumps when working at this lift being consequently 456,000, or 
or nearly half a million gallons per minute. But 456,000 per minute eq uals 656,640,000 
gallons i)er day of twenty-four hours, while, according to the latest return, the total 
quantity of water supplied by the whole of the London Water Works is a little under 
110,000,000 gallons per diem, so that it will be seen that the quantity of water to be 
dealt vrith by the Ferrara pumping machinery amounts to six times the whole met- 
ropolitan water supply. Again, 456,000 gallons, or 72,960 cubic feet per minute would 
supply a stream over 103 feet wide and 4 feet deep, running at a speed of two miles 
per hour, or 176 feet per minute, while the delivery for a single day would also suf- 
fice to fill a reservoir a mile square to a depth of about 3 feet 9 inches. Lastly, we 
may mention that in 1852 when several important water works acts were passed, the 
minimum quantity of water passing down the Thames above Hampton was estimated 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 555 

at 36*2,000,000 gallons per diem, wbile in September, 1865, observation showed a min- 
imum quantity of a little over 300,000,000 gallons per day ; this latter quantity being- 
less than half that to be lifted by the Ferrara pumping machinery. These facts will, 
we trust, give a fair idea of the quantity of water to be dealt with, and we must now^ 
speak of the machinery itself. 

There are, as we have said, to be four pairs of pumps, each driven by a pair of com- 
pound engines, each pair of pumps witli its engines being entirely independent of the 
others. The bed-plate for each set of pumps aud engines is made of three pieces, the 
center piece, which weighs 13 tons, carrying the engines complete. The two other 
sections of the bed-plate are securel3'^ bolted to the central piece, so as to form one solid 
mass, w^hich, if the foundations fail in any way, must go altogether, without disturb- 
ing the alignment of the crank-shaft or pump-shaft bearings. The pumps are placed 
one on each side of the engines, the pump-shafts forming prolongations of the crank- 
shaft, and being connected to the latter by disc couplings, on which are keyed small 
disc fly-wheels, containing the balance weights, one of the wheels also being a worm 
wheel fitted with turning gear for turning the pumps by hand. This is an exceedingly 
neat arrangement. 

The pump-shafts are of steel, about 8| inches in diameter, and are provided with 
bearings beyond the jjump-casings. The pumps have 5 feet disks, and suction and 
delivery pipes 54 inches in diameter, the suction passage passing through the bed- 
plate directly under the pump, and branching to enter the pump-casing on each side. 
The arrangement is such that by simply removing the top bend of the outer suction 
branch, the disc can be examined, or, if necessary, removed, without interfering 
with the pump-casing or other pipes, the facilities for examination being, in fact, ex- 
cellent. The volute or casing of each pump is made in a single casting, some 15 feet 
in diameter — a very bold piece of work, which has been successfully accomplished. 

The engines are, as we have stated, compound, and are of the intermediate receiver 
type. They have cylinders 27f inches, and 46f inches in diameter, respectively, the 
stroke being 2 feet 3 inch. The two cylinders, together with the valve-chests and 
intermediate receiver are made in a single casting, and Messrs. Gwynne have designed 
and erected a very simple form of special boring machine, by which the two cylindertS 
are bored ont simultaneously, and perfect parallelism is secured. Both cylinders are 
jacketed, the jackets being formed by the insertion in each cylinder of a loose work- 
ing barrel or liner, fixed by an internal bolted flange at one end, and provided with 
an expansion joint at the other. The valve-chests are on the outer sides of the cylin- 
ders, the high-pressure cylinder having an expansion valve on the back of the main 
slide; w^hile the low-pressure cylinder has, as is usual, a single valve only. The cranks 
are not placed at right angles, but at an angle of about 130°. 

The low-pressure cylinder exhausts into a pair of surface condensers, placed one on 
the discharge-pipe at each pnmp. Each condenser is simply a cylindrical chamber, 
having a tube-plate at each end, and traversed by a number of 3-inch tubes, short 
conical lengths of pipe connecting the tube-plates with the pump-casing and the pro- 
longation of the discharge-pipe, respectively. Each condenser exposes 750 square feet 
of tube surface, and, as the tubes are traversed by the whole of the water discharged 
by the pumps, this surface will be very effective. The tube-plates, we may mention, 
are of cast iron, and have the tube-holes cast in them, the tubes projecting through 
the plates, and the packing simply consisting of an india-rubber ring slipped on the 
projecting end of each tube, and so spread as to form a joint between the tube and 
the plate. This form of packing has been employed by Messrs J. & H, Gwy^ne for 
similar condensers on former occasions, and it is found to act perfectly, while it is cer- 
tainly extremely simple and easily applied. The air-pump, which is single acting, 
and is 19 inches in diameter by 12-iuch stroke, is placed below the level of the engine- 
room floor, aud driven by an eccentric on the crank-shaft between the two cranks. 
A sluice-valve is placed on each discharge-pipe beyond the condenser, this valve be- 
ing worked by hydraulic power. 



556 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



Of the general design and workmanship of these engines we cannot speak too highly, 
the latter being fully equal to that of the very best marine engine work we ever had 
an opportunity of inspecting. The pump-spiudles, connecting-rods, piston-rods, and, 
in fact, most of the working parts, with the exception of the crank-shaft, are of 
Bessemer steel, and everywhere large bearing surfaces are provided, and every pains 




taken to secure a thoroughly solid aud substantial job. There are many neat points 
in the design, too, which could only be appreciated from an inspection of the engines 
themselves, or from an examination of the drawings, and these we must leave to be 
made clear by the engraving which we hope to publish hereafter; but in the mean- 
time we may state that the whole design is especially distinguished, not only by good 
proportions, but by the fewness of parts employed. 

Steam will be supplied to the four pairs of engines by two groups of boilers, placed 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 557 

one at each end of the building containing the pumping machinery. Each group con- 
sists of tive boilers, these boilers each containing two liues or furnaces united into a 
combustion chamber traversed by Galloway tubes, while 108 tubes, 3 inches diameter 
by 4 feet long, extend from this combustion chamber to the back end of the boiler. 
Each boiler exposes 730 square feet of heating surface, and has 30 square feet of grate 
area. 

In conclusion, we should state that the first pair of engines and pumps has been 
completed within eight months of the signing of the contract, a remarkably short 
time, when it is remembered that the whole design was a new one, for which draw- 
ings and patterns had to be got up, and that the whole of the castings were made by 
Messrs. J. & H. Gwynne themselves. The remaining three pairs of engines and pumps 
are to be delivered before the end of the year ; and there are also in hand at the Ham- 
mersmith Iron Works some other large pumpiug machinery for the docks at Stock- 
holm, Cadiz, and Cuxhaven, as well as for sewage works at Leeds. Altogether, the 
energy' with which the work of which we have been speaking has been carried out 
reflects much credit on all concerned in it, and Messrs. J. & H. Gwynne are to be con- 
gratulated on the result. 

The manufacturers state that for emptyiug dry and floating docks, 
caissons, coffer dams, or gas-tanks they can be recommended with cou- 
lidence, being cheaper, and better adapted for the i)urpose than any 
pumping machine ever introduced. They have been fixed by them at 
^ieuw Diep, Newcastle, Sunderland, Greenock, Cuxhaven, Cadiz, Ureat 
Grimsby, Stockholm, Portsmoutli; Clarence Graving Docks, Liverpool, 
&c., and they guarantee the following advantages over other pumping 
machinery : 1st, they are cheaper at first cost; 2d, they are more econom- 
ical in their working expenses; 3d, they are more durable; 4th, the 
workmanship is superior. 

One important use to which these pumps might be put is that of 
dredging sand. 

The prices of these pumps will be furnished on application to the 
manufacturers. 

ANDREWS' PATENT IMPROVED ANTI FRICTION CENTRIFUGAL PUMP. 

This invention is the result of many years of experimenting with and 
use of all kinds of pumps. In 1846 was patented the pioneer of this 
class of machines, since widely known as the Gwynne pump, and ex- 
tensively manufactured in England. In 1854 was patented the anti- 
friction centrifugal pump, which patent was extended in 1868.. 

The present invention is claimed to be a great improvement upon the 
last, reducing its cost, increasing its capacity, and saving over 25 per 
cent, in power. 

Figs. 1 and V are perspective views ; Figs. 2 and 1' are vertical sections ; 
Fig. 3, the propelling disk and wings; Fig. 4, the foot- valve in section. 
Similar letters refer to like parts. The arrows show the direction in which 
the disk turns. A is the suction-pipe flange on chamber C, within which 
the disk K, with its wings 1 to 6, revolve without touching ; to chamber C 
are attached the conducting cases DD^, which form between them an 
easy, curved, spiral discharge passage, gradually enlarging towards its 



558 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



outlet E. The shaft G, of cast steel, passes through stuffing-box F, aud 
is fitted into a Babbitt-raetal box in standard H and its cap h. Suction- 
pipes attach to flange A, and discharge pipe to flange/. The wings on 




Fig. 1. 




Fig. 2. 



disk K extend above the disk to exclude dirt from the bearings and 
partiallj^ relieve the downward pressure ui)ou the disk. The spaces above 
and below the disk are connected b^^ holes, li k, through the disk, equaliz- 



THE ENGINEER SECTIOA 



559 



ing the vacuum therein, relieving it from all downward pressure and 
perfectly balancing it, so that no lower bearing or step is required. The 
same result is also obtained by connecting the spaces through a pipe 
passing around the disk outside the pump or through passages cast in 
its shell. 

The advantages claimed are the following: 

Having no tight working joints, it is almost frictionless, and having 
no working valves or other loose parts to get out of order, it will run for 
years without rexiairs, and pumj) large quantities of mud, sand, gravel, 
coal, grain, paper-pulp, tan bark, meal, beer, molasses, oil, &c., without 
injury or derangement. It saves from 40 to 60 per cent, of the power 
used by others and works equally well as a suction or force pump. 




Fig r. 

It is superior to piston pumps from its ability to pump sand, gravel, 
&c., and in its great saving of power lost by the friction of tight work- 
ing joints, by moving the water through crooked angular passages, and 
in overcoming the momentum and inertia of the entire column of water 
at each stroke. 

Over other centrifugal pumps the advantages claimed are a very 
large saving of power and greatly increased durability ; it moves the 
water through easy curved passages instead of at angles, and dis- 
penses with a step or other downward bearing, avoiding the great down- 
ward pressure and wear usually imposed thereon, and gives an unob- 
structed inflow. The several parts are experimentally i)roportioned, the 



56o 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, i^-jd. 



surfaces turned and finished, and tlie disk balanced, enabling it to work 
with maximum efficiency and economj'. 

The same firm makes engines, double and single, to couple direct to 




Fig. 



the shafts, without beltiug or gearing, for driving the sizes from No. 
upwards, to raise water from 20 to 30 feet bigh. / 





Fig. 3. 

Pumps with these engines attached are extensively used for surface 
condensers, draining and irrigating lands, dry-docks, coffer-dams, gold- 
washing, wrecking, &c. 

HEALD AND STSCO CENTRIFUGAL PUMP, BALDWINSVILLE, N. Y. 

THE HOLLOW-ARM WHEEL. 

Figs. 1 and 2 exhibit different styles of the piston wheel of this pump. 
The hollow-arm piston shown above is the one on which the frame ot 



THE EXGIXEER SECTIOX. 



561 



the pump is mainly based, and is adapted for raising- \vater or any thin 
fluid not too mucli encumbered with stringy or tenacious material. 

The chamber C communicates directly with the space outside the 
pumi), the raised wall or rim being turned on its outer circumference to 
fit the opening in the shell. The fluid to be raised flows or is drawn 





Pig. 1. 



Fig- 2. 



into this chamber, and is expelled by the rotary motion of the wheel 
through the hollow arms, escaping through the opening in the rim. Be- 
tween the outer face of the wheel and the walls of the shell there is a 
space which gradually widens as the current approaches the place of 
exit from the pump until it attains the full dimensions of the discharge 
pipe. The water being confined in the space beyond the wheel is not 
thrashed about by the arms, but is forced steadily forward into the dis- 
charge pipe. 

THE COXCAVE-ARM WHEEL. 

The ^' concave-arm" x)ump, of which Fig. 2 shows the piston wheel, is 
used for essentially the same pur]joses as the " hollow arm " variety, and 
is not far behind that style in elfectiveness. The prices are the same 
as for corresponding sizes of the hollow-arm pump. 

THE "new" COXCAVE-AKM PUMP. 

This style is designed expressly for raising " half-stufl'" in paper 
mills and the stringy material sometimes found in the liquors of tan- 
neries. Its external appearance is the same as that of the hollow-arm 
pumi), but the wheel has broad '' concave " arms, which do not taper, 
and is adapted to this difficult work, or to any other for which centrifu- 
gal pumps are ever used. 

THE VERTICAL PUMP. 

Fig. 3 is a representation of the " vertical" pump, originally so named 

on account of the shaft being perpendicular. The scroll or shell A is 

of brass or cast-iron, as circumstances require, made in halves, and 

bolted together in the usual manner, 

30 CEN 



The piston (Fig. 1), already de- 



562 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



scribed, is attached to tlie shaft D, and works in the scroll^ running 
lightly, in nicely fitting bearings. The fluid enters the pump at the 
bottom, and is discharged at F. 

The vertical pump is intended to stand on the bottom of the junk, 




Fig. 3. 



tub, well, or reservoir, as the case may be, or it can be fastened at any 
required distance from the bottom; the only essential point being that 
the pump should be constantly immersed in the fluid to be raised. 

For draining lockpits, cofl'er-dams, tan-vats, &c., in short, for any sit- 
uation in which large quantites of very foul water, containing mud, sand, 
gravel, bark, «&;c., are to be raised expeditiously and cheaply the verti- 
cal pump is well adapted. 




THE HORIZONTAL PUMP 



is filled with either the hollow or concave-arm wheel according to the 
work for which it is required. It is furnished with an attachaient for 
charging itself, and may be used in similar localities to other centrifu- 
gal pumps. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



56, 



BAGLEY cV SEWALL'S ROTARY FORCE PUMP, WATERTOWN, TS\ Y. 

. The illnst ration presents sectional views of this newly -invented rotary 
pnmp. 

An examination of the drawing will demonstrate that it is absolutely 
positive as a suction and force i)ump. 

1 




Advantages clahned. — The entire capacity of the cylinder is utilized, 
both compartments, outside and inside the eccentric ring, being filled 
and emptied at each revolution, whether the speed be fast or slow. 

Everj' joint is of metal and self-packing, avoiding stuffing boxes and 
packing. It has no valve, and the working parts are exactly balanced 
in the water, equalizing the pressure on all i^ortions. It delivers a 
stead^^ strean], forcing the same to any desired height, without leakage, 
and at any desired speed ; the volume of water discharged, under all 
conditions, being exactly proportionate to the power and speed applied, 
enabling^any given amount of work to be done, without the expendi- 
ture of any'surplus power. 

Fig. 1 is a vertical longitudinal, and Fig. 2 is a transverse section. 

A is the main case or body of the pump in one piece, on the interior 
of which is^the ring B, the space outside of B being the cylinder or 
water space. This cylinder is inclosed by the disk D, which is attached 
firmly to the shaft. To the disk D is attached eccentrically a ring, E, 
a portion of which is always in contact with the outside of casing A, 
and also with the ring B, at a point exactly opposite, so that the eccen- 
tric ring E is really the piston of the pump ; the disk and ring beiug 
rotated by the shaft driven by pulleys of proper size. I is the suction 
port and J the discharge. These ports are separated by the sliding 
abutment H, which moves back and forth on its seat with the throw of 
the eccentric ring E. The tumblers fitted to this abutment adjust them- 
selves to the ring, and as the pressure is constant upon them from above, 
they effectually pack the ring and prevent any escape of water below. 

The water enters at I, and as the piston ring rotates, it is forced be- 
fore and between it and the casing, around to the ui)per portion of the 
latter and out at the port J. As the ring rotates, it opens a space be- 
tween its inner i)eriphery and the fixed ring B, into which space the 



564 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

water from port I enters, filling the interior of the piston, to be forced 
out as before. The center ring B is made enough deeper than the cas- 
ing A to exactly equalize the contents of the inside and outside of the 
piston ring E, thus securing a perfectly steady flow of water from the 
discharge. F is the cover or outside case. Holes are made through 
the disk D, to allow the water to pass through and between it and the 
outer case, thereby balancing the working parts, and equalizing the 
pressure upon them. One end of the shaft has a closed bearing in the 
outer case; the other bearing is in the case A. On the shaft, and be- 
ing a part of the disk D, is a collar which is fitted to the seat K, mak- 
ing a perfect water tight joint, by which all "packing" of the pump is 
avoided. In the center of the seat K is a circular groove, which con- 
nects by a drilled channel with the suction port. Should there be 
any tendency to escape of water at the seat K, the force of the suction 
keeps the port closely to the seat, and absolutely sealed against air or 
water. 

All parts are made to exact gauges, and are interchangeable. In case 
repairs or examination of the pump is necessary, by removing the outer 
case, the working parts are all exposed, without breaking connections 
of any of the pipes. Having no valves, it is able to 'pumi^ anything suffi- 
ciently liquid to pass through the pipes. 

ROTARY LIFT AND FORCE PUMP. 
Made by W. & B. Douglas, Middletown, Conn. 

The advantage claimed for this pump is in effectually overcoming the 
objections which have heretofore been experienced in the use of other 
rotary pumps, viz, the great friction and consequent wear to the work- 
ing parts when under any considerable head and the difficulty of keep- 
ing the pump perfectly packed, and of otherwise repairing the same. 
This is accomplished as follows : 

First. There are passages made through the slides or valves from 
front to back (see Fig. E), which permit these valves to work in and 
out of the chf^mbers in which they move, without hydrostatic resistance, 
as the pressure of the water upon the back and front edges of the valves 
is balanced, this pressure being rendered the same within the chambers 
as without by the passage-ways through the valves ; also, the move- 
ments of the valves in their chambers do not take place when they are 
doing their work, but, on the contrary, they move only when the press- 
ure of the water is equal on all their sides ; they will, therefore, slide 
in and out of their chambers so easily that their own weight will effect 
these movements, unless the pump should be run at so great a speed 
that the centrifugal force would overcome that of gravity. The pins 
on the ends of the valves thus work with the smallest possible amount 
of friction in the grooves which determine their movements. This will 
be readily understood by reference to the sectional view of pump, shown 
by Fig. D. 



THE EXGIXEER SECTION. 



565 



^rit 




riG. A.— Douglas's lift and forca i)ump. 




566 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



All sizes are in successful operation, racgiug from a small barrel 
pump, for pumping water, oil, or spirits, to a water- works pump, sup- 
plying over 20,000 gallons per hour to a reservoir nearly a mile distant, 
the pump sustaining a pressure of 55 pounds to the square inch with a 
suction of about 10 feet. Many of the smaller pumps are in use, where 
they lift the water from 20 to 24 feet. 

Frif-ts of Fig. A, with puUei/s on same. 



Size. 



Style. 



12^ inches 
16 inches . 



rig. A.... Iron 
Fis. A i do 



Material. 



Number of Number of i ! 

revolutions gallons c,-^^ ^^^4„„ t),.-„„ 
per min- perrevo- Size of pipe. Price, 
ute. tion. 



Price with 

bed and 

shaft for 

pulley. 



20 to 100 
20 to 90 



13-10 



Inches. 



^150 
250 



$195 
295 



Pulleys included in the above prices. 

BARON DE GREINDL'S PATENT ROTARY PU3IP. 

Constructed by Leon Morean, Brussels, Belgium. 

Pecidiarities claimed. — It is not a centrifugal but in reality a true lift 
and force pump, having a continuous piston motion, and will raise water 
to any height, giving a higb percentage of efficiency. 




Baron de Greindls rotary pump. 

It is always ready for starting, never requiring preliminary filling 
with water; lifting and forcing are regular and continuous; no jerking 
or jarring; no valve springs or internal parts possessing intermittent 
motion ; water flows at a constant speed through the body of the pump ; 
the lifting power is a practical maximum ; will pump any fluids; speed 
of the pump is remarkably slow ; it ought not to exceed 150 revolutions 
per minute for an outflow of 120 gallons, nor 950 revolutions for a deliv- 
ery of 1,500 gallons to any height; no air chamber is needed ; the useful 
effect of this pump, working at moderate heights, is between 75 and 80 
per cent. The waste incivases very slowly, the ratio being as the square' 
root of the height. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 567 

COMPOUND PROPELLER PUMP. 
Made by Hydrostatic and Hydraulic Company, 915 Ridt^e avenue, Philadelphia, Fa. 




Compound propeller pump. 

The pump consists of plain cast-iron i^ipe A, provided at bottom with 
basket-chamber K and at top with elbow I), and has inserted in cen- 



568 



INTERNATIOA'AL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



ter of pipe A a proj^eller shaft, F, carrying propellers H H ; interven- 
ing which are stationary wings, I, and everj' 5 feet a bearing, B, is pro- 
vided. The shaft rnns in journal in top of elbow D, and is propelled 
by belt on pulley G^from anj^ source of power. 

This method of constructing pumps reduces the parts to the least 
number possible ; consisting only of two parts, the i3ipe with the propel- 
ler shaft inserted thus — having only one moving part, with no valves or 
other complications to clog uj) or get out of order. 

The large sizes are provided with a water-bearing to support weight 
of shaft, &c., in a frictionless manner. 

These pumjjs are of compact construction. The small pump throws 
1,000 gallons per minute. 

This pump can be driven by belt or engines direct to propeller-shaft; 




\m J — r ...J 



dirt and rubbish can be pumped when mixed with water. The pump 
fills itself with water and does not have to be started by pouring water 
into the same as in centrifugal and many othei' pumps. 

The advantages claimed are : 

1st. Simplicity of construction, having no valves, and consisting of 
but three pieces — the column-pipe, shaft, and propeller. 

2d. Economy; costing much less than any other pump of the same 
power. 

3d. Enormous power ; a 7-inch pump yielding 1,000 gallons per min- 
ute; an 8-inch, 1,200 gallons; a 10-inch, 2,000 gallons; and a 20-inch, 
10,000 gallons per minute. A 6-foot pump throws the enormous quan- 
tity of 100,000 gallons per minute ! 



THE ENGINEER SECTION * 569 

4th. Adaptation. It cau be used either as a force or lift pump, and cau 
be placed vertically, horizontally, or at an angle. 

5th. Requires no oiling, and will lift sand, mud, sticks, and other rub- 
bish without any interference with its efficiency. 

6th. It will elevate water to any height. 

CROSS-SECTION OF WATER-BEARING. 

The water-bearing is a device, applied to the compound propeller- 
pump for sustaining the weight of the column of water with the shaft 
and propellers. It consists of a cast-iron beam, which rests upon the 
top elbow of the pump, and upon which are secured i)illars supporting 
a stationary disk, provided witli an ordinary stuffing-box, through which 
revolves the propeller-shaft. Under a dome which rests on the station- 
ary disk is another disk, which is secured to the propeller-shaft and re- 
volves with it, and which is provided with an annular piston, with ring- 
packing. Water is forced by a donkey force-pump between the sta- 
tionary and revolving disks, through an ordinary pipe, under a pressure 
equal to the weight to be sustained per square inch, which is confined 
between these disks by the annular x^iston, thus separating them bj^ a 
film of water upon which the revolving disk floats, sustaining the entire 
weight of the revolving machinery and most of that of the column of 
water lifted by the pump. Any surplus water forced between the disks 
tends to lift the revolving disk higher than a given point, and raise the 
annular piston off the stationary disk and thus allow this excess of 
water to pass out under it, which is received into the dome and returned 
through a common pipe to the tank from which it was supplied. 

AQUOMETEE STEAM-PUINIP. 

This pump is peculiarly adapted for pumping out mines, wells, &c., 
and has the advantages of requiring no foundation and no special care ; 
it will pump sand, mud, sawdust, and the like. 

In excavating shafts it can be hung by chains or ropes and raised or 
lowered at will as the work progresses. 

It acts by the steam first exerting a direct pressure and forcing the 
water out of the pump, and then condensing, forming a vacuum, and 
thus lifting the water into the pump for the next stroke ; its action is 
similar to that of the pulsometer, which see. 

Furnished by the American Dredging Company, Philadelphia. 

THE PULS03IETER STEAM-PUMP. 
Manufactured by Pulsometer Iron Works, .Jersey City, N. J., J. A. Grosvenor, agent., 

The illustration represents in section the latest form of the "Pulsome- 
ter," which in design and construction is claimed to combine durability, 



570 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 




Interior. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



571 



efficiency, simplicity, and strength. Its operation is sustained by steaui 
pressure brought to bear directly upon the liquid as the forcing ele- 
ment, while the subsequent condensation of the same furnishes the 
lifting force to supply the pump, which action is maintained by the 
purely functional conditions of alternate pressure and vacuum. The 




Pulsometer steam-pump. — Sectional view. 

pulsometer, in form and construction, consists principally of two bottle- 
shaped chambers, A A, joined side by side with tapering necks bent to- 
ward each other, to which is attached by means of a flange joint (as 
shown in the figure) a continuous passage from each cylinder leading 
to one common upright passage, into which a small ball, S, is fitted so 
as to oscillate with a slight rollino^ motion between seats formed in the 
junction. These chambers also connect with a vertical induction pas- 
sage, D, which openings are so formed that valves P P, and their seats 
R R, which may be of any form and material desired, may easily be in- 
serted. The delivery i^assage H, which is common to both chambers, 



572 



INTERNATIOXAL EXHIBITIOX, 1876. 



is also so constructed tbat in the opening that communicates with each 
cylinder can be placed valve seats, L, of any material, fitted either for 
a spherical shell or ball ^alve, O O, or hinge valves of metal, wood, 
or rubber faced, or with any other style of valve and seat that may 
be desired. B represents the vacuum chamber, cast between the necks 
of chambers A A, and connects only with the induction passage below 
the valves PP. CO represent flanges, covering the several openings, 
to facilitate the removal of valves and seats when necessary. There is 
also a small air check-valve secured into the neck of each of the cham- 
bers A A, and one in the vacuum chamber B, so that their stems hang 
downward. Yent plugs are inserted into the flanges C 0, for the pur- 
pose of drawing off the water to prevent freezing. 

The operation of the pulsometer is as follows : Connect the steam and 
water -i)ipes, place a check- valve on the suction-pipe, fill the suction- 
pipes and chambers with water, and the pulsometer is ready to operate. 
Then, if steam be admitted at the'top it will pass into whichever cham- 
ber the position of the ball permits, and as it enters the chamber di- 
rectly above the water, it i)resses upon and forces it out past the dis- 
charge-valve through the discharge-pipe with a force equal to the i3ress- 
ure of steam in the boiler. When a ball- valve is used in the discharge- 
chamber it oscillates between the seats in a manner similar to the steam- 
ball, and sim^Dly checks'the back flow of the water after it has been ex- 
pelled from each chamber. When other styles of valves are used one 
is placed at the opening from each chamber, so that each will operate 
as checks. The intermediate chamber B is supplied with air by means 
of the air- valve, which serves to cushion the ramming action of the 
water as it rushes into each chamber alternately. 

The air-valve in the neck of each chamber allows a small quantity of 
air to enter above the water, to prevent the steam from agitating it on 
its first entrance, and thus forms an air- piston, preventing condensa- 
tion. The quantity of air admitted may be regulated by the milled nut 
on the stem of each valve. 









Price-list 


ofr 


eguJar sizes. 








No. 


Diameter 
of each 
working 
cylinder. 


Height of 
pulsometer. 


Space occu- 
pied. 


Size of 
steam sup- 
ply pipe. 


Size of 
suction- 
pipe. 

j 


Size of 

discharge 

pipe. 


Gallons 

per 
minute. 


Weight. 


Price. 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


! 


Pounds. 







2 


6f 


6iby 3 




i 


h 


\ 


4 


5 


$25 00 


1 


3 


10 


6ibv 4 






1. 


1 


8 


10 


50 00 


2 


^ 


15 


9iby 6 






1* 


1* 


20 


24 


100 00 


3 


6 


19 


12i bv 8 






9 


9' 


60 


60 


1.50 00 


4 


7| 


24 


16' by 10 




■ \ 


2J 


2i 


110 


114 


200 00 


5 


9 


30 


19 bvlU 




2 


3 


3 


: 175 


175 


250 00 


6 


10^ 


35 


22 by 13" 




a 


3i 


3i 


! 300 


275 


300 00 


7 


12 


40 


25 bvl5 




1 


4 


4 


' 425 


375 


400 00 


8 


15 


50 


31i by 20 




1 


5 


5 


1 750 


500 


600 00 


9 


18 


60 


37J by 24 




H 


6 


6 


1, 100 


800 


800 00 


10 


21 


70 


45 bV28 




H 


7 


7 


1, 500 


L200 


1, 100 00 


11 


24 


80 


50 by 30 




2 


8 


8 


2,150 


1,760 


1, 500 00 



IHE EXGIXEER SECTIOX 



573 



NYE'S STEAM VACUUM PUMP. 
Nye & Palmer, maDufactiuers, 75 West Wasliiugton street, Chicago, 111. 

This pump operates ou the same principle as the aquometer and pul- 
someter steam pumps elsewhere described. 

By referriug to the cut it is seen that the machine consists of two 
cast-iron cylinders, lined with wood to prevent loss of steam by contact 
with the metallic surfaces. The condenser (a plain chamber back of 
cylinders) a simple, balanced, automatic steam valve (seen on top of 
cylinders) and four common clack-valves, covering suction and de- 
livery ports. The whole is supported on a raised base. 




Xye's steam vacuain pump. 

When the pump is set in position and the ordinary connections of 
steam, suction, and discharge pipes have been made, the condenser is 
to be filled with w ater, and the pump is now ready to start. Steam is 
then admitted to one of the cylinders for an instant, dispelling the air, 
and is then turned off*. This steam is immediately condensed by a spray 
or jet of water passing into the bottom of the cylinder by means of a 
passage from the condenser, thereby forming a vacuum, which allows 
the atmosphere to force water through the suction-pipe, filling the cyU 



574 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



inder from below. The effect of tbe vacuum lias also been conveyed at 
the same iustant by a port from the steam i^assage to one end of tbe 
sensitively balanced steam valve, causing it to move gently towards 
the vacuum, shutting the steam ports to that cylinder and opening 
those to the other. Steam is again turned on, and entering the second 
water cylinder the same operation is repeated as in the first, the vacuum 
is, formed, the valve shifts, and the cylinder is filled. We have now two 
cylinders of water, and the steam ports to the first cylinder are open. 
Steam is now finally turned on and the globe valve regulated for the 
amount of steam necessary to do work. One pound pressure being 
needed for every 2 feet of elevation. The steam enters the cylinder, 
and acting directly upon the water, forces it out through the discharge- 
pipe, a small quantity at the same time enters by a passage in base of 
pump in the condenser, compressing the air at top of water, and form- 
ing an air-cushion. At the iustant the cylinder is emptied the pressure 
on the air-cushion is relieved (in consequence of an attempt of the steam 
to follow the water of the discharge-pipe), and the rebounding of the 
air-cushion forces a jet of water back into the cylinder full of steam, 
condensing it instantly, and forming a nearly i)erfect vacuum, thus 
utilizing the steam which is or^Jinarily the exhaust. Thus the vacuum 
is formed, the cylinders filled, and the steam-valve operated at no ex- 
pense of live steam or loss of power. 

The port to the second cylinder now being open, the steam discharges 
the water from that while the first is filling. The action is then repeated 
on each cylinder alternately. The pump will run with but little atten- 
tion, pumping the most impure water that is required of any pump to 
raise. 

Price-list of regular sizes. 
[Eevised February 1, 187G.J 



No. 



Horse-pow- 
er of boiler 
needed to 

pump to 
full capac- 

I ity. 



•^Tn^^Jsizeof Sizeof ^i^e of 
^^./£l'f ' steam- suction- ^^^«- 



of each 
cylinder. 



4 
1 

5 

8 

15 

25 

50 

75 

100 

200 



pipe. 



pipe. 



charge- 
pipe 



Inches. Inches. Inches. 



Gallons per minute at an elevation of- 



20 feet. 



1 


15 


H 


35 


U 


100 


2f 


175 


3 


300 


4 


500 


5 


800 


7 


2,000 


8 


2, 300 


9 


3, 000 


10 


5,000 



50 feet. 



75 
115 
200 
400 
700 
1,600 
2,000 



100 feet. 



75 
140 
300 
600 
000 
200 



150 feet. 



40 
50 
100 
200 
400 
600 
800 



Price. 



100 

1.50 

200 

250 

350 

500 

800 

1,000 

1,200 

2,000 



THE EXGIXEER SECT/OX. 575 

EOGK-DEILLS. 

AmoiJg mecbanical appliances useful to the euglueer rock-drills stand 
in the foremost rank. AYithout them such works as the Hoosac Tunnel, 
tunnels of St. Gotthard and Mont Cenis, and, of a more recent date, 
the work at Ballet's Point (Hell Gate), ^ew York, could not he carried 
to a successful conclusion without an immense expenditure of time and 
money. 

Nearly all the drills on exhibition have points of excellence, and as 
the subject is so important I have omitted but few. I do not pretend 
to give any particular one the preference, merely' setting forth the ad- 
vantages claimed by each patentee or manufacturer. 

BURLEIGH ROCK DRILL COMPANY, FITCHBURG, MASS. 

The following description of this drill is condensed from the pami)hlet 
issued by the company. 

Main elements of the drill are the cage, the cylinder, and piston. The 
cage is merely a trough, with ways on either side, in which the cylinder, 
by means of a feed-screw and automatic feed-lever, is moved forward as 
the drill cuts away the rock. 

The piston moves back and forth in the cylinder, propelled and oper- 
ated! either b^' steam or compressed air . 

The drill-point is attached to the end of the piston, which is a solid 
bar of steel. The piston is rotated as it moves back and forth by a 
single mechanism. The forward motion of the cylinder in the trough 
is regulated by an automatic feed, the advance being more or less rapid 
in proportion as the cutting is fast or slow. It will thus be seen that 
the drill-point and solid steel piston alone receive the shock of the blow. 
When the cylinder has been fed forward the entire length of the screw 
feed it may be run back, and a longer drill-point inserted in the end of 
the piston. 

The regular rotation of the drill insures the delivery of each blow at 
the point of greatest efficiency, each wing of the drill-point striking the 
rock at a point just far enough in advance of the cut of the preceding 
blow to chii^ away the rock lying between. 

The yielding of the chip saves the edge of the drill-point, and thus 
the advance of the drill-point in the rock, without sharpening, is ten 
times greater than is possible in hand-drilling, vv^here the hole is formed 
by the crushing and pulverizing of the rock. 

The drill is so mounted that it can be pointed in any direction, differ- 
ent styles of drills having different mountings. 

These machines are applicable to all kinds of rock work, whether 
mining, quarrying, cutting, tunneling, or submarine drilling. Holes 
may be drilled from | inch to 5 inches diameter to a depth not exceed- 
ing 30 to 35 feet, at the rate of from 2 to 10 inches per minute, accord- 
ing to the nature of the rock. They are driven by steam or compressed 
air, and, at a pressure of 50 pounds to the inch, work at 200 to 300 blows 
per minute, according to the size of the machine. 



576 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 




//// 

Barleigli drill mounted on iron tripod for rook-cutting. 
PRICE-LIST. 

DRILLS. 

Stopiugdril].... 1550 00 

Mining drill -. 600 00 

Mining drill, improved x^attern 650 00 

Tunnel drill 675 00 

Sewer drill - 950 00 

Heavy s^wer drill 1, 200 00 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 577 

DRILL CARRIAGES. 

New York pattern (long bar) $130 00 

Iron tripod for large drill 150 00 

Iron tripod for jumper 75 00 

Mining carriage 300 00 

Mining carriage, with side-bars 265 00 

Column for small drifts 110 00 

Large tunnel carriage 1, 600 00 

Small tunnel carriage 

Drill clamps, 6 inches 30 00 

Drill clamps, 4f inches i 20 00 

Drill points, finished, per pound 30 

Stoping drill drills IJ to If inch holes, and feeds 20 inches without 
changing drill-points. Extreme length, 3 feet 2 inches; extreme siz© 
on cross-section, 9 by 10 inches. Weight, 206 pounds. 

Mining drill drills IJ to 2 inch holes, and feeds 26 inches without 
change of drill-points. Extreme length, 4 feet 7 inches ; extreme size 
on cross-section, 13 by 9J inches. Weight, 475 pounds. 

Improved mining drill drills IJ to 2 inch holes, and feeds 24 inches with- 
out change of drill-points. Extreme length, 3 feet 9 inches j extreme 
size on cross-section, 12 by lOJ inches. Weight, 330 pounds. 

Tunnel drill drills IJ to 2J inch holes, and feeds 36 inches without 
changing drill-points. Extreme length, 5 feet 7 inches ; extreme size 
on cross-section, 13 by 9J inches. Weight, 550 pounds. 

Sewer or submarine drill drills 2 to 4 inch holes, and feeds 44 inches 
without changing drill-points. Extreme length, 6 feet 8 inches; ex- 
treme size on cross-section, 13 by 12 inches. Weight, 675 pounds. 

Heavy submarine drill drills 3 to. 5 inch holes, and feeds 54 inches 
without changing drill-points. Extreme length, 8 feet 9 inches ; ex- 
treme size on cross- section, 15 by 13 inches. Weight, 1,000 pounds. 

THE DIAMOND DRILL. 

While other drills bore holes in the rock by a succession of blows the 
diamond bores an annular hole, the core remaining intact. It is this 
feature which makes it specially valuable for prospecting purposes. 

The boring tool is a hollow bit of steel having three rows of diamonds 
(bort or carbon embedded in it), one row projecting from the face, the 
others from the outer and inner surfaces respectively. 

The drill rod is hollow, and a stream of water is forced through it 
while drilling. 

The following advantages are claimed: 

1st. Speed in boring. — They drill faster than any other way. 

2d. Economy in using. — They perform a given amount more cheaply 
than it can be done otherwise, 33 per cent, cheaper than hand labor. 

3d. Durability and simplicity. — Simple in construction ; seldom need 
repairs; can be run by workmen of ordinary intelligence. 

4th. Cylindricity of holes. — They produce holes uniform in diameter. 

5. They are not deflected from a right line by seams and crevices, nor 
impeded in their progress by the hardest rock. 

37 CEN 



578 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 




Diamond rock drill. — Shafting drill. 



THE ENGINEER SECTIOA. 579 

6. Depth of holes. — Have bored thousands of holes from 300 to 1,500 
feet in depth, many of them horizontal. 

7. .Variety of uses. — Adapted to shafting, tunneling, well-boring, and 
specially suitable for prospecting and submarine drilling ; can drill with- 
out difficulty rocks 20 to 30 feet under water. 

There are two kinds of black diamonds used in pointing drills, known 
as carbons and bort ; the former resembling in shape small irregular 
pieces of gravel, and in color having much the same appearance as 
a small piece of brown, dingy-looking coal, not being quite so bright or 
black. The latter (the bort) is the real diamond, which, from its imper- 
fections, is unfit for jewelry. It is nearly spherical in shape, and is not 
often used of larger size than a pea, and is generally set on the outer 
edge of the drill, as from it^ form it is not so liable to catch in any seams 
which may be in the rock as the irregular shape and sharp angles of 
the carbons. These stones are brought, principally for American use, 
from Brazil, via London, Paris, and Amsterdam, to New York. Some are 
brought from Siberia, and more recently from South Africa ; the latter, 
however, are more glassy and have less toughness, and are much more 
liable to crush under pressure than those from Brazil, and are little used 
for drilling purposes. The process of collecting diamonds is similar to 
that of collecting gold in alluvial deposits. The coarse gravel and rolled 
pebbles derived from the primary and metamorphic rocks form the lowest 
stratum among the sands and clays of the alluvium. This stratum rest- 
ing upon the surface of the rock is the repository alike of the gold and 
of diamonds. It is laid bare in the beds of the streams when these 
cease to flow in the dry season, or are drawn oft' by sluices made for the 
purpose. From these beds, as well as from the excavations in the bottom, 
the gravel is removed, to be washed when convenient. This, in Brazil, 
is usually in the rainy season, and the work is done in a long shed, 
through which a stream of water is conveyed, and admitted into boxes 
in which the gravel is washed. A negro works in each box, and in- 
spectors are placed to watch the work and prevent the laborers frSm 
secreting the diamonds. 

Diamonds, as being the hardest of known substances, have been used 
from the earliest times for cutting other stones, like the onyx, sapphire, 
&c., and more recently were found to be an efficient instrument for dress- 
ing burr-mill millstones, and for fashioning various devices in stone f 
but it remained for modern engineering science to develop their highest 
practical value. The first application of diamonds to the miner's art 
and practical rock-drilling was made in 1863 by Prof. Eudolph Leschot, a 
civil engineer, resident in Paris, France. 

The prices of these drills are as follows: 

No. 1. Prospecting machine |4, 000 

No. 2. Prospecting machine * 5.000 

No. 3. Prospecting drill without boiler 3, 250 

* This machine bores a hole 2^ inches in diameter, 1,500 feet, taking out a 2-inch 
core. 



580 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

No. 1.. Shafting drill, boring If to 2 inches diameter, 500 feet deep $2, 500 

No. 2. Tunnel and mining drill, boring \\ inches diameter, for short bole 

boring 1,250 

No. 1. Open cut and quarry drill, boring I to If inches diameter, 50 feet 

deep 1,000 

American Diamond Eock Boring Company, 37 Weybosset street, 
Providence, E. I. 

Pennsylvania Diamond Drill Company, 110 South Centre street, 
Pottsville, Pa. 

INGEESOLL KOCK DRILL. 

Sold by the Ingersoll Rock Drill Company, 1^ Park Place, New York. 




Improved Ingersoll Drill, mounted on tripod for vertical drilling. 



IhE ENGINEER SECTION. 



581 



The following advantages are claimed for this drill: 

Durability, simplicity, light weight (one person can handle and carry 
the drill), adjustability, and the automatic feed, saving the expense of 
one skilled workman. 

It will drill five times as fast as by hand, and at 30 to 50 i>er cent, less 
cost. It will drill under water j but success depends upon the construc- 
tion of an apparatus suited to the particular work. 

It has been used successfully at Port Golborne, Canada, at the harbor 
of Oporto, Portugal, at the Kiver Weaver Navigation Works, England, 
near Liverpool, and at the Mississippi Eiver improvements, near Saint 
Paul, Minn. 

Farticulars of the Ingersoll Bock Drill. 







r 




each ! 
will 

1 


i 
of hole 
capable 


Hi 


■ing 
nitic 
e en- 
hard 


Weight of 
machine with and 


It 


II 













^ s fl 
bto 




without tripod: 




u 


, 


SI 




Length 
of feed. 


5.S 
0^ 


DC 

J^ «: S 








£ 


i 


ill 





i 






Hi 

^2- 


1-5 -§ 


Ul 


Km 


1 
Machine. Tripod. 




}2i 


5 


I-; 




q 


■< 


< 






pu 


Ph 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Feet. In. 


Feet. 


Inches. 


Feet. 


Feet. 










1 


5 


6 to 7 


2 9 


40 


3 to 6 


70 to 80 


30 to 40 


558 


260 


$775 


$825 


2 


4 


5 to 6 


2 6 


20 


2 to 4 


— to — 


— to — 


472 


245 


675 


725 


3 


H 


4 to 5 


2 


12 


1^ to 2i 


— to — 


-to- 


295 


120 


600 


650 


4 


3 


3to4 


1 10 


10 


1 to 2 


-to- 


-to- 


150 


70 


500 


550 


5 


2i 


3 


1 2 


8 


1 to H 


— to — 


-to- 


88 


18 


250 


250 



THE UNION ROCK DRILL. 
Union Rock Drill Coinpariy, 10 Cortlandt street, New York. 

This machine, in its present shape, has originated through the con- 
solidation of the patents of E. S. Winchester, of Springfield, Mass., 
George H. Reynolds, of l^ew York, and those owned by Messrs. 0. H. 
Delamater & Co., of New York. The best features contained in these 
patents, and which, after long and continued trials, have proved to be 
most valuable, have been selected for the construction of this new drill. 
Greatest possible lightness', combined with durability, have been the 
main objects in view. To obtain lightness steel is the principal material 
used in the building of the machine, cast-iron only being employed where 
necessary. The fact of the increased work performed on different kinds 
of rock is principally due to the rapid running of this drill, a result of 
the extreme simplicity of its valve, which is moved by the piston di- 
rectly and without the interposition of any other part. 

A perspective view and sectional drawings are herewith given. 

In the accompanying drawing Fig. 1 represents a'longitudinal section 
through the machine ; Fig. 2 is a front elevation ; Fig. 3 a transverse 
section, and Fig. 4 a top view of cylinder, showing the rotation. The 
same parts are marked with the same letters. 

1. The valve. — A is the valve which regulates the ilow of steam or air 
to either side of the piston. It is a rolling valve, with an oscillatory 



582 



INTERNA TIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 




Union rock drill — Prospective view. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



583 



motion, made of brass. The pressure being on the side towards the cylin- 
der and the ports on the opposite side, the valve will always be kept tight 
on its seat ; motion is imparted to it by means of a double lever, or tap- 
pet, B, which enters into a recess turned into the central part of the 




Union Kock Drill. — ±"ig. 1, iougitudinai section; I'ig. '6, transverse section. 

piston. This lever is made of spring-steel, and sufficiently light to allow 
for a considerable amount of yielding when the piston strikes it, the two 
levers coming into successive action. Thus the destructive shock re- 
sulting from the violent contact with the piston is reduced to a gradual 



584 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 





Union Kock Drill.— Fig. 2, front elevation: Fig. 4, top view of cylinder. 



THE ENGINEER' SECTION. 585 

cushiouing, which greatly enhances the durability of both valve and 
tappet. The regulation of the flow of steam is the same as in other roll- 
ing valves for steam engines, and requires no special explanation. The 
valve is held from sliding sideways by bonnets, and at the same time 
receives the central journals cast on the valve. One of these journals 
passes through the cover and carries at its end a small hand-wheel, c, 
which serves to move the valve from the outside, when the movement 
of the piston leaves it in its central position, covering both steam-ports 
and causing a stopping of the drill. 

2. The controlling cock^ marked D, has for its object the regulation of 
the back stroke of the piston. If the drill i)oints downward it requires 
more steam or air to bring the piston back than if a hole is being bored 
in the roof of a tunnel or mine. If a deep hole is drilled the long bits 
weigh more than the short ones ; hence more force is wanted in this case 
also to lift the longer bits. Different pressures tend in no less degree 
to alter the speed of the piston. The result of these different condi- 
tions will be that the piston is thrown back with great velocity, when 
the power that propels it is much in excess of the resistance. On the 
down stroke all the power that can be got will advantageously be spent 
in striking the rock ; but on the up stroke the machine itself has in 
some way to receive the destructive blow. To meet this a common cock 
is inserted in the lower steam-port, which is from time to time set accord- 
ing to the conditions prevailing, so that only steam or air enough is taken 
in to bring the piston back without allowing it to strike hard against 
the upper head. But to leave the exhaust on this same side of the pis- 
ton free on the down stroke a separate exhaust port is provided on one 
side of the steam -port, both running into the same common port behind 
the cock. This arrangement spares the machine and at the same time 
is economical as to the consumption of air or steam. 

3. Piston paching .—To insure a tight fit of the piston in the cylinder 
metal packing rings, E, are inserted into the cylinder. They are double, 
to break joint, and covered by a third one of spring steel, which tightens 
them on the x)iston. In order to get them into their places and hold 
them there the cylinder is bored larger at the ends, the rings are slipped 
in, and sleeves, F, put on top of them, and these are held by the cylin- 
der covers. To prevent the two- rings from altering their relative posi- 
tions, and also to prevent them from turning around with the piston, a 
set screw, G, is tapped through the wall of the cylinder, penetrat- 
ing looselj^ into a hole of the rings, where they join. The rings being 
stationary in the cylinder, combine two great advantages over those 
that are put in the piston. In the first instance, they are not apt to 
break on account of the perpetual jarring that they receive when united 
to the piston ; and, further, they always fit the piston. The piston in 
which a drill is mostly used involves a greater wearing of the cylinder 
on the bottom side. It will be out of true after some time of use, while 
the rings, moving to and fro and revolving with the piston, will remain 



586 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

round, and then a fit is no longer possible. But the piston remaining 
round, the rings (which are stationary) will always fit it. Lightness 
and durability are insured. 

4. The rotation. — A twisted bar, H, enters the upper end of the pis- 
ton, but is prevented from moving along with it by bein^ held in the 
upper head, in which it is allowed to turn freely. In order to prevent 
leakage the inner collar I is made in the shape of a conical valve. 
On the outer end of the rotation bar a ratchet-wheel, J, is attached ; two 
pawls, K, allow it to turn only in one direction. While one pawl is in 
gear, the other is in half gear. This arrangement is equivalent to a 
ratchet-wheel having double the number of teeth, while the strength of 
the teeth is not diminished. By having thus reduced the pitch of the 
wheel the back lash is made smaller and the jar on the teeth greatly 
decreased. Their shape also makes them verv strong. In fact, the 
rotation of the piston, even with the extraordinary speed attained by 
this drill, is absolutely positive. The twisted end of the bar, in order 
to give great wearing surface, is made in the shape of a cross or a 
spindle with four wings on it. These wings are guided by a long 
brass nut which is screwed into the end of the piston. The twist being 
right-handed the thread cut on the nut is left-handed, so that the tend- 
ency prevails to always screw the nut further into the piston, appar- 
ently a small matter, but very important, as it becomes superfluous to 
secure the nut, which otherwise would get loose in the piston. 

5. The chuck, — This, marked S, is of the most simple construction. A 
tapering piece of steel, hardened at both ends, is screwed on the end 
of the piston-rod. To keep it in place it is split through its entire 
length, and a steel band is driven on which firmly clasps it on the 
V-shaped thread. To hold the drill-bit in the chuck two more slots are 
cut into the latter, but running up only to near the end of the piston- 
rod. Thus, three elastic tongues are created which inclose the shank 
of the drill-bit as soon as the lower band is driven on the tapering end. 
The striking of the drill-bit on the rock has the tendency to tighten 
these rings continually, making the whole a very simple and secure 
arrangement. The thread which connects it to the piston-rod is made 
left handed for the same reason as that of the nut for the rotation-bar. 
The rotation of the piston being from right to left, the chuck (if it 
moves at all) can only tighten itself, and never come off. 

t). The feed-screw. — This, T, is made unusually heavy and with great 
surface threads, because the high speed and heavy blow involves in- 
tense vibration and jarring of the whole machine. 

7. The tripod. — The nut a of the feed-screw is tapped into the head 
of a strong bolt, b, which holds the cradle c in the socket d of the tri- 
pod. This nut has an octagonal flange, one side of which bears on the 
bottom of cradle, and thus prevents the nut from jarring loose. The 
drill, by means of the bolt b and socket d, may be turned sideways, 
while the bolt e' allows it to be swung up and down. A third bolt,/, 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 587 

controls the position of the legs. The two latter, e and/, are square in 
their bodies, with beveled heads on one end, while the other carries a 
conical washer, </, under the nut. A glance at Figs. 1 and 3 will show 
that the square bolt is prevented from turning in the washer^ as well 
as in the center pieces ; thus the friction of four conical surfaces acts 
as resistance to turning, making an uncommonly secure joint. The two 
front legs h move simultaneously, because they are kept in the same 
relative position by the two bolts e and/. A twisting, and consequent 
collapsing, of the tripod cannot occur on this account, even if both 
bolts, e and/, are loose. In consequence of this arrangement the drill 
may be pointed in any desired direction, up or down and sideways. 
The legs are shortened and lengthened in the usual manner, by slip- 
ping into wrought-iron pipes, and held fast in them with steel set-screws. 
Weights, i, of proper construction give steadiness to the whole ma- 
chine, and they are so arranged that they need not be removed if it is 
necessary to adjust the length of the legs, thus saving time and trouble 
in setting the tripod. 

VICTOR ROCK DRILL. 

This machine seems more especially adapted for quarry work. It 
can be propelled by hand or steam ; in either case the drill is driven by 
its own weight, aided by two spiral springs. 

The special advantages claimed are light weight (350 pounds) ; its pe- 
culiar shaped bit, which will always drill round, straight, smooth holes. 
Two men, with this machine, can dO the work of six or eight without it. 

Price of machine to drill holes 10 feet deep and from IJ to 2 inches dia- 
meter, $250. Extra charges for bits to bore larger, smaller, and deeper 
holes than above. The same machine driven by steam , with all appliances, 
$750. Sold by W. Weaver, Phcenixville, Chester County, Pennsylvania. 

waring's self-feeding rock drill. 

95 Liberty street, New York. 

The following advantages are claimed: Great simplicity and great 
strength, enabling it to be run at any speed from two hundred to one 
thousand strokes a minute without fear »of injury to itself. All its 
parts are interchangeable; no working parts are exposed except the 
piston-rod. 

For general work the machine is mounted on a new kind of tripod, 
so constructed that each leg can be moved in any direction ; that is, 
the distance between the resting place of the legs can be varied, thus 
enabling the workman to put holes just where he wants them. 

The drill is secured to the tripod column or carriage by a simple and 
unique clamp that is operated so quickly that when the drill is to be 
mounted in places difficult of access a workman should always detach 
the drill from the tripod, and the work of putting the machine in place 
is made easv. 



.S88 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



The feed is automatic aud positive, and will feed the bit to the^rock 
exactly as fast as it is cut away. The rotation is positive and will make 
a round hole invariablv. 




WarJDf^'s self-feeding rock drill. 
PRICE-LIST. 



Price. ! Weight. 



2| inches diameter drill with tripod or column | $450 

3| inches diameter drill with ti ijiod or col iimn 1 550 

3^ inches diameter drill with tripod or column '■ 650 

5" inches diameter drill with tripod or column ' 950 

Columns or tripods, extra, $75 to $100. 



Pounds. 
175 
300 
400 
850 



Will 
drill holes — 



Inches. Feet. 
H by 6 
n by 12 

2 by 15 

3 by 30 



THE ENGIXEER SECTIOX. 



wood's steam or pneumatic rock drill. 



589 



The following adv^antages are claimed : The machines are simple and 
direct acting, portable, and can be worked at all angles ; are durable 
and drill rapidly. 

Peculiarities. — The piston-rod, chuck, or tool-holder, and the ratchet 




WooiVs lock Uiiii. 

for rotating the tool are one single piece of wrought steel and is the only 
piece which receives the force of the blow. The chuck or tool-holder 
seizes the tool automatically at the end of the blow, so that if by any 
means the drill gets loose it will be caught at the next blow. 

The length of the strokes can be instantly adjusted when the raa- 



590 



ITERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



chine is ruuDing at aoy speed and the piston can be instantly stopped 
at either end of the cylinder. 

The rotation is secured by the action of a single piece ; its action is posi- 
tive. The feed is perfectly regulated, although it is intermittent in its 
action. The machine may be easily taken apart or put together. All the 
y)rincipal working parts are covered. The machines are made with inter- 
changeble parts, so that any piece can be duplicated. They are made 
of four sizes, designated by the diameter of the bore of the cylinder. 

The 2f-inch machine has 5-inch stroke, is 24 inches long, and weighs 
155 pounds exclusive of tripod. Price, including tripod, clamp, anchor 
weights, and one set of drills, $500. 

The 3-inch machine is 24 inches long and weighs 210 pounds. It is 
designed for IJ-inch to 2^-incli holes, depending upon the hardness of 
the rock. Price, complete, $550. 

The 4-incli machine is 29 inches long, has a GJ-inch stroke, and weighs 
425 pounds; makes holes of any desired size. Price, complete, $800. 

The 5-inch machine weighs 725 pounds ; the tripod weighs 200 pounds. 
It is intended for the heaviest kinds of ordinary work. Price, complete, 
$900. Address Lewis and Phillips Iron Works, Newark, N. J. 



STONE BREAKING MACHINERY. 

THE BLAKE CRUSHER. 

The Blake crusher is a machine for breaking stones, ores, and other 
hard substances into fragments of moderate size, used in the construc- 




Perspective view of new pattern crusher. 

tion of roadways, in ballasting railroads, in preparing concrete, &c. It 
breaks the stone by means of two upright jaws, set in a massive frame j 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



591 



oue jaw is fixed, the other has a slight vibratory motion. The largest 
of these machioes will break stone weighing half a ton and reduce it to 
fragments of 5 inches. 

The following advantages are claimed ; Labor saving; one 15 by 9 ma- 
chine will produce 100 cubic yards road metal per day, the fragments 




Sectional view of new paiiexii criisuer, wiih parts lettered for convenience in designating pieces 

wanted for repairs. 
A A, main frame; B, fly wheels; C, driving pulley: D, crank shaft: F, pitman; G G, toggles : H 
fixed jaw; I, cheek; J, movable jaw; K, jaw shaft; L, rubber spring; N, wedge: O, toggle block; 
P P, jaw plates : W, wedge nut. 

being IJ inches in diameter or less. The quality of the product is 
better. Machine-broken stone for concrete requires 33 per cent, less 
cement than stone broken by hand. 
Made by the Blake Crusher Company, Kew Haven, Conn. 

PRICE-LIST. 







^1 






Extreme dimensions. 


Driving 
pulley. 






> 




^1 


II 


ii 


fat) 












z 




2^ 


% 












ft® 




g 


302 


fl 














a< 


i =^ 




a 




2 




1 


Length. 


Breadth. 


Height. 


Diam. 


Face. 


1 

Ph 


1 


0: ** 






Inches. 


Cu. yds. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


In. 








A. 


10 by 4 


3 


1,695 


4,000 


3 11 


3 3 


3 9 


1 3 


6 


250 


4 


$425 


*1 


10 by 5 


3 


3,585 


6,700 


8 4 


4 6 


5 


2 


6 


180 


5 


850 


2 


10 by 7 


5 


4, 339 


8,000 


5 3i 


3 8 


4 5 


2 


7* 


250 


6 


950 


*3 


15 by 5 


6 


4,700 


9,100 


8 7 


5 


5 


2 4 


8 


180 


9 


1,150 


*4 


15 by 7 


6 


6,400 


10, 890 


8 7 


5 


5 


2 4 


9 


180 


9 


1,250 


5 


15 by 9 


7 


8.188 


14, 000 


6 5 


5 


5 11 


2 6 


9 


250 


y 


1,300 


*6 


15 by 11 


7 


7,000 


11, 600 


8 11 


5 


5 


2 4 


6 


180 


9 


1, 350 


8 


20 by 15 
15 by 13 




8,450 


32, 600 
11,760 


8 6 


5 


6 7 


3 6 


10 


150 


12 


2,800 


*7 


\m\ 


7,165 


9 1 


5 


5 


2 4 


8 


180 


9 


1,400 


9 


24 by 18 


9.425 


37, .500 


9 10 


5 1 


6 10 


6 


12 


125 


12 


3, 000 


10 


15 by 12 


6 


4,400 


8,600 


4 8 


3 7 


5 2 


2 


8 


230 


« 


850 



Note. — The amount of product depends on the distance the jaws are set apart, and the speed. The 
product given in the table is due when the jaws are set IJ inches open at the bottom, and the machine 
is run at its proper speed and diligently fed. But it will also vary somewhat with the character of the 
stone. Hard stone or ore that breaks with a snap will go through faster than sandstone. 

A cubic yard of stone is about 1 ^ tons. 

In getting an engine to drive one of these crushers it is advised to have one of greater power Ihan 
just what is stated in the table as required. It is much more economical to use 9 horse-power from a 
12 or 15 horse than from a 9 or 10 horse engine. 

* Nos. 1, 3, 4, 6, and 7 are made of the old or lever pattern only. 

t Coarse or preliminary breakers. 

Five per cent, discount from above. 



592 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



krom's stone crusher. 

Manufactured by S. R. Krom, 206 Eldridge street, New York. 

This stone crusher was designed especially for crushing ores, but is 
equally well adapted to crushing any hard stone. What distinguishes 




M^Z. 




Kioui's stoue aud ore crusher. 



this machine from any other is that both jaws oscillate on centers fixed 
some distance from the crushing faces. The principal feature is the 
employment of segments of circles between which the ore is crushed on 
the same principle as rollers act. 



THE ENGIXEEK SECTION. 593 

It will be seen (Fig. 2) that the lower ends of the crushing plates are 
true segments of circles, and throughout all the movement of the jaws 
they remain at fixed distances from each other, but the top parts of the 
plates recede from each other with straight lines. The crusher can be 
adjusted by means of bolts so as to produce either tine or coarse crush- 
ing. 

These crushers are constructed both for laboratory use and for the 
heaviest kind of work. The larger ones are provided with parts which 
will yield when undue strain is put upon the machine, and thus prevent 
any breakage. 

STONE CUTTING MACHINERY. 
branch's patent diamond stone-sawing machine. 

The great difficulty in using the bort, carbon, or black diamond in 
cutting stone has been the forming of a strong junction between the 
metal of the saw and the diamond. 

Among the first attempts was the insertion of the diamond into steel 
or iron holders with soft metal cushions for the diamond to rest in. 
These holders were then dovetailed into the edge of the saw disk, and 
by a wedging device compressed the diamond into the soft metal. These 
saws worked well for a time, but the soft metal cushions would yield 
to the pressure of the work and the diamond would W4>rk loose. Others 
have attemi)ted brazing the diamonds into the holders, but the results 
were no better. 

Mr. Branch claims to have overcome this difficult}^ by fusing tlie dia- 
mond into the holder, the carbon of the diamond and of the steel uniting 
and rendering the union indestructible. The union is so perfect that 
the line of junction cannot be distinguished with a magnifying glass. 
This with the character of the holders and their manner of insertion^ 
into the disk of the saw constitutes the chief merit of the invention. 
The. diamond holders are simple in construction and can be set into the 
saw by any practical mechanic. 

The mode of applying water for lubricating the saw when in opera- 
tion, and washing away the grit and dirt, is novel. The water is con- 
ducted through the center of the mandrel into chambers in the saw- 
collars, which is provided with radial orifices on each side of the saw, 
and through which the water impinges up^i the saw, and by the cen- 
trifugal force is distributed over the surface and conveyed to the cut. 
This effects three results : 1st, keeping the journals of the mandrel 
cool: 2d, keeping the saw cool and even in temperature, preventing ex- 
pansion, and, 3d, cleansing from the grit and dirt produced by sawing. 

The table, feed-carriage, and ways are simple in construction, and 
answer the purpose for which they are designed. 

The ordinary free and sand stones are sawed by these machines at 

38CEN 



594 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S76. 



the rate of from 6 to 36 inches per minute 5 the marble and lime stones 
from 2 to 18 inches per minute, or an average of 200 to 800 feet per day, 
making due allowance for the handling of the stone. 

The inventor states that he finds but little wear or change in the 
diamonds after using them two and a half years, what change there 
was being more due to fracture than wear. 



THE DIAMOND STONE SAW. 

Made by the Emerson Stone Saw Company, 12 Smitlifield street^ Pittsburgh, Pa. 




This is a circular saw for cutting stone, its distinguishing peculiarity 
being that its teeth are furnished, like those used in the diamond rock 
drill, with diamonds which do the work. 

The proprietors claim that this machine, doing regular work, cuts in 



THE EXGINEER SECTION. 



595 




ordinary sandstoue at the rate of 2o0 surface square feet per hour (count- 
ing both sides of the cut), and other stone in proportion, according to 
relativ^e density or hardness, leaving the stone true and in line, free 
from spalls and stuns, and ready to be placed 
in buildings. This is equal to the ^York of one 
hundred men in the same space of time, and 
at an expense not exceeding cost of 
sharpening and wear of tools neces- 
sary to do the same amount of work. 
The main distinguishing peculiarity 
-p , of this over other diamond saws is the 
nnhipj- manner in which the diamond is se- ;^-^ -, 

nuuLLr T . , . ,. -,, >S<XH/ tooth' 

cured, which is as loUows: 
The diamond (Fig. 1) is embedded in a small piece of copper, which 
is held by the jaws c c of the holder A. The holder A (Fig. 2) is 
held in its position in the saw-tooth by the clamp e, tightened by the 
wedge/, which can be moved in the open space from g to h for this pur- 
pose. It will be noticed that this open space is a little narrower at h 
than at g. 

young's reciprocating diamond saw machine. 

Hugh YouDg, foot of East One liiindred and seventeentli street, New York. 

The principle of this invention may be broadly stated as follows : 
That the diamonds are made to act upon the stone in such a manner 
as to receive pressure in one direction only. While operating the blade 
under this method there has never been felt the want of any better mode 
of fastening the diamond than the ordinary and simple practice of brazing. 

In the construction of machines the above principle as to the recip 
rocating blade is carried out by causing it to be withdrawn from con- 
tact with the stone before and during its return stroke, and bringing it 
back into contact with the stone only at the beginning of the next cut- 
ting stroke. 

In the i)receding diagram Z represents the stone to be cut, Y repre- 
sents the cutters, carrying the diamonds, when acting upon the stone, 
and N' represents the same cutters held away from contact with the 
stone on the return stroke. 

The cutters V first plow their way upon the stone Z (arrow No. 1), 
making the cutting stroke «/ a; then are withdrawn and held away 
from the stone (arrow No. 2), while making the return stroke (arrow Xo. 
3), and finally are brought down to their work (arrow No. 4). The 
movements indicated by arrows Nos. 1 and 3 are the cntting and return 
strokes, or the reciprocating motion of the blade ; those indicated by 
Nos. 2 and 4 are the push and lift motion. 

It will be obvious to any one carefully observing the above that all 
the pressure ajjplied to the diamonds has a tendency to embed them more 



596 



INTERNAriONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



firmly into their sockets instead of dislodging tbeni, as would be the 
case were the pressure applied alternately from both directions. 

So much for the theoretical statement ; but, as developed in the me- 
chanical application, both in the patent and in the practical construc- 




tion, this movement is executed in a way still more favorable to the 
diamonds. 

1st. The diamonds are brought doAvn to their work, not at a right 
angle, but on a gentle curve, the result of urging the downward push 
motion and the beginning of the cutting stroke. 

2d. The beginning of the cutting stroke and the push motion, acting 
in unison as above, are effected by the crank at the time of passing the 
dead center, thus allotting the longest time for the push action and the 
slowest part of the forward movement to the entering of the diamonds 
upon their work. 

3d. The feed movement of the machine is made to act only during the 
time of the cutting stroke, thus still further subdividing the w^ork put 
upon the diamonds. 

As illustrating this exceedingly minute subdivision of the work of 
the diamonds, it may be mentioned that wdien cutting with a feed of 
30 inches x^^r hour, each stroke removes only -^\-^ of an inch, which 
makes an allotment of 2X00 ^^ '^^ \wi!\\ of downward work to each dia- 
mond in the saw. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE. 

Referring to the plate, Fig. 1 is an end view of the single-blade 
diamond saw machine ; Fig. 2 is a sectional elevation of the same; Fig. 
3 is a top view of the same ; and Fig. 4^ 5, 6, 7, and 8 rei)resentinti' a 
cutter block armed with diamonds seen in different positions. 

The frame of the machine is of timber. It is composed of eight posts, 
A, firmly planted in a concrete foundation, and united by the horizontal 
pieces B B^ and transverse pieces and D ; the whole thoroughly 
framed, bolted, and braced to stand square, plumb, and rigid. 

The guiding vertical slides Y and T are made adjustable and firmly 
bolted to the posts A. The slides S, suspended at the four corners on the 
cuts of the screws 1 1 1 1^ work between, and are guided by, the slides Y 
and T. The eight screws t are connected together by the gears 0, shaft 
G, and shaft H, which, when turned in one direction or the other, will 
cause the slides S to rise or fall in a perfectly parallel manner. 

For raising or lowering the saw. the shaft H may be turned by hand 
with the handle c, or by steam power with the pulley h] but for feeding 
the blade down into the stone the shaft H is turned automatically by the 



YOUNG'S 

tiPROCATING DIAMOND SAW. 





1. Posfci of the frame of the macliiuo. 

i B'. HurizoDtal pieces of the same. 

; and D. Transverse pieces of the same. 

;. Diagonal brace bolts. 

:■ and T. Vertical slides for slides S. 

. Horizontal slides suspended on nuts of fepd aci 

. Gears working screws (. 

', Long shafts connecting gears o. 

[. Transverse shaft connecting shafts G. 

Handle forturning shaft H b.y hand. 

Palley to receive a belt for turning shaft H by j 



It. Rachet wlieel for turning aliaft H by actiou of machino for 1 

J. Feed eccentric. 

I. Feed rod. 

F. Variable feed rock lever. 

J. Feed rod ou machine. 

E. Sash end pieces. 

E', Thrust piece of sash. 

E". Top piece of sash. 

K. Crank wlieel. 



Q. Blade carrying diamond cutters V. 



Buckles for stn-tcliii 



M. Eccentric on cm 

N. liod on pitman. 

0. Lever. 

X. Link. 

i. Rod on sash. 

e. Cam levers. 

a. Pushers. 



r 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 597 

action of the machine itself through the eccentric J, rod T, rock lever 
F, rod j, and ratchet-wheel R. 

The sash-frame is composed of two end pieces E, thrust-piece E^, and 
and top piece E'^, well fitted, bolted, and braced. It is mounted on 
suitable blocks, so as to slide freely and truly upon the horizontal slides 
S, and receives a reciprocating motion upon said slides S from the crank- 
wheel K, through the pitman P. 

The blade Q is mounted and tightlj' stretched in the sash-frame by 
the buckles A-, and, moving with the sash, receives the go and come rec- 
tilinear moti')n, which we call the cutting stroke and return stroke. 

The push and lift motion, or that motion which, alternating with the 
cutting and return stroke, is given to the saw-blade to push it to and 
hold it in concact with the stone during the cutting stroke and to lift, 
and keep it away from the stone during the return stroke, is accom- 
l)lished by the action of the eccentric M on the crank-pin, transmitted 
through the rod ]S, lever O, link a, rod i, levers ss, and pushers q q. 

The cutter-blocks V are made of steel, and so shaped and adjusted 
into the blade Q as to be readily taken out and replaced for the purpose 
of setting the diamonds therein, and are held fast in their places by 
soft metal rivets as represented in Fig. 4. 

Fig. 8 represents the cutter- block V seen from the lower edge, show- 
ing the appearance of the diamonds n when set in it. 

Fig. 7 is the same cutter-block seen from the top edge, illustrating 
the projection of the diamonds each side of the metal. 

Fig. 6 is the same cutter seen from the same point of view, but sur- 
rounded by a small section of the blade Q, illustrating the projection of 
the cuTter-block each side of the blade Q. 

Fig. 5 represents the same cutter-block and section of blade seen from 
the end thereof; and 

Fig. 4 is again the same cutter-block and piece of blade in front view. 
In this figure the dotted line a' a is the cutting line or bottom of the 
kerf, n are the diamonds as they appear projecting from the steel cutter- 
l>lock and r is the soft metal rivet used for holding the cutter-block 
Y firmly in the socket of the blade Q. 

In order to assist in clearing the debris from the kerf, and keejnng 
the diamonds cool, small streams of water are used, which are directed 
to the proper place of operation by gum pipes conneced with a distri- 
buting pipe and regulated by stop-cocks. 

The main shaft X, a portion only of which is represented in the illus- 
tration, is firmly mounted on suitable adjustable pillow blocks, and 
carries (besides the crank wheel K and eccentric J shown in the draw- 
ing) a heavy balance fly-wheel and a pair of driving pulleys, loose and 
tight, for receiving the driving belt. 

RESULTS. 

The downward feed of the saw varies according to the hardness and 
impenetrability of the stone, from 3 inches in Scotch granite to 5 feet 



598 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

per hour in soft freestone. In Connecticut brown granite the average 
is about 2 feet G inches per hour, equal to an average of 200 superficial 
feet of sawing per day of ten hours for one machine, with two moving 
tables. 

By cleaving stone to a double thickness, the saw makes two available 
faces at once, thus facing 400 superficial feet of ashler per day; or, if 
the blocks are such as to average three faces to two cuts, 300 feet of 
ashler per day. It makes no material difference in the rate of feed 
whether the whole length of the saw is occupied or only a part of it, nor 
whether it operates on one long stone or on a number of small ones. 

PRICE LIST. 

Prices of Yoiniy^s single-hlade diamond saw machines, including licenses for using them uitlr 

out further royally. 
To cut 8 feet long by— 

3 feet high $4,500 

4 feet high 4,700 

5 feet high 4,900 

To cnt 9 feet loug by — 

3 feet high 4, 700 

4 feet high 4,900 

5 feet high 5,100 

To cut 10 feet loug by — , 

3 feet high 4,900 

4 feet high 5, 100 

5 feet high 5, 300 

To cnt 11 feet long by — 

3 feet high 1 5,100 

4 feet high 5,300 

5 feet high 5,500 

To cut 12 feet long by— 

3 feet high 5,300 

4 feet high 5,500 

5 feet high 5,700 

To cut 13 feet loug by — 

3 feet high 5,500 

4 feet high 5,700 

5 feet high 5,900 

Add to the above prices $100 for each parallel moving table required. 

These prices are without power, water supply", or belts, but set up 
complete in every other respect and made ready for work, including 
blade and dianionds complete, an extra set of cutter-blocks without 
diamonds, and instruction in running machine and setting diamonds. 

The purchaser, however, will dig foundations, furnish rough labor^ 
help in erection, and furnish and lay masonry; also pay freight from 
J^ew York and the board and railroad fares of the men sent to erect ihe 
machine and teach its use. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



599 



THE MERRIMAN PATENT GANG FOR SAWING STONE. 
Thomas Ross, mannfacturer, Rutland, Vt. 

The principal advantage claimed is^tbat the frame or sash which car- 
ries the saws is fed down to the stone by an antomatic feed capable of 




ready adjustment to stone of different degrees of hardness, and, at the 
same time, is held firmly down while in action, so that the pressure of 
the saws upon the stone is uniform and not dependent uj^on the weight 



600 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

of the frame ; this construction also counteracts the thrusting action of 
the pitman ui^on the frame, which becomes excessive when the saws 
are at the top or bottom of a block, causing a juniping motion of the 
frame and saws, largely neutralizing their cutting action and destroying 
the machine itself. This feature also allows the machine to be safely 
run at an increased speed. 

Tbe cut shows a gang actuated by two pitmen, attached to both sides 
of the frame. 

THE STACY STONE-DRESSING 3IACHINE. 
Address A. J. Fisher, 98 Nassau street, New York. 

The engraving gives some idea of the construction of the machine; 
but it is impossible to show with accuracy the operation of the cutters 
on so small a scale. The cutting (cylinders carry hinged cutter-stocks, 
arranged spirally. The cutters are secured in the heads of the stocks 
and when worn can be quickly changed. 

The action of this machine is entirelj' due to a mechanical movement, 
which gives a blow similar to that given by hand without that excessive 
wear and tear, either on the machine or tools, attendant on machines 
heretofore constructed for dressing stone. 

In working the machine, the stone to be cut is laid upon the carriage 
and the feed-motion adjusted, as the character of tbe stone and the work 
to be done may require, and the machine started. 

The first cylinder takes off the rough stone, the second smooths it 
sufficiently for ordinary use. 

When a very smooth surface is required similar to tbat produced by 
the rubbing-bed, the finishing cylinder may be used. 

The action of the three cylinders may be simultaneous and the stone 
is usually finished at one operation. As each cuttercomes round, it strikes 
the stone in the plane of its face, and instantly rebounds, the rapidity of its 
motion being such as to carry it during its rebound over the inequalities 
of the surface of the stone so that it will strike but once during each 
revolution. 

The feed may be arranged to allow the cutters to strike once or more 
times in the same place before the stone is fed forward. 

As each cutter strikes separately with a ver^^ light blow, thin stones 
can be dressed, and stones of any considerable weight do not require to 
be secured to the carriage, and can therefore be rapidly handled. 

The amount of power required is small, not exceeding 3 horse power 
for a 24 inch machine. 

The machine dresses from 4 to 12 inches linear ])er minute, according 
tu the hardness of the stone and the finish required. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



60 1 



mm^u 




602 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

THE WARDAVELL STONE CHANNELINO AND QUARRYING MACHINE. 

Manufactured by the Steam Stone Cutter Company, Rutland, Vt. 

The following is a description of the double gang machine, as repre- 
sented mounted upon its track on the bed of the quarry : 

The frame which supports the boiler, engine, and other machinery 
consists of one piece of forged iron, weighing nearly a ton, thus furnish- 
ing great strength and durability. The engine is of 6 horse-power; its 
shaft carrying a balance-wheel, A, on each end, to which is attached an 
adjustable wrist-pin plate. B and F are levers i)ivoted at their rear 
ends to the frame at 0. The free end of the lever B passes through a 
sliding stirrup or swivel attached to the wrist-pin (not shown), giving an 
up-and-down motion to that end of the lever as the balance-wheel A 
revolves. The free end of the lower lever F passes through a mortice 
in back side of lower clamp G. Motion is communicated from the upper 
to the lower lever by means of clasps, between which the rubber 
springs D and E are placed, as shown in the engraving. The free end 
of the lever F actuates the gang of chisels, which consists of five bars 
of the best cast steel, sharpened at their lower ends, and clamped to- 
gether by head-and-foot clamps ; the whole sliding freely on the stand- 
ard. Of the five chisels two, 1 1, have diagonal cutting edges, and three 
have their edges transverse. The middle chisel H extends the lowest, 
and all together form a stepped arrangement each way from the center. 
Thus it will be seen when the machine is moving forward the front three 
cutters, which includes the middle one, H, operate ; while moving- in the 
opposite direction the other two, with the middle one, H, perform the 
work. The object of the diagonal cutting-edges is to insure an even 
bottom to the channel. These bars of steel are from 7 to 14 feet in 
length, according to the depth of the channel to b* cut. The upper ends 
of these bars are separated, to match corresponding separations in the 
head clamp, for the i)urpose of preventing any displacement of the 
cutters while in use. J is a worm on the main shaft, and actuates the 
toothed wheel K. The shaft of the latter extends diagonally down- 
wards to the rear of the machine, where it terminates in a level pinion j 
upon the rear axle are placed two beveled gears, one of which is shown 
in part of L. By means of the lever M either of these beveled gears 
may be thrown into action with the i)inion. It will be readily under- 
stood that the motion thus communicated serves to turn the axle either 
backward or forward, according to which wheel engages the pinion. 
When the machine is required to be stationary these beveled gears are 
so placed as not to engage with the pinion. The short lever N locks 
these beveled gears in either of the desired positions. The windlasses 
O O on each side of machine are for raising the gangs of cutters out of 
the channels. The opposite side of the machine is, of course, the same 
as that already described. 

The length of the double gang machines is 10 feet, and they are made 
of three different widths, respectively, to cat channels 4 feet 1 inch, 6 
feet 3 inches, and 6 feet 7 inches apart, and cut two channels at once. 



I 



Hiiiilil 



of 
fe 




machmil-«<'"«*r*'' ».»<«>• 



1 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 603 

The length of the single gang machine is 7 feet, width G feet, and it 
cuts either vertical or inclined channels down to 45^, and the catting 
apparatus with its operating machinery is made adjustable for operat- 
ing upon either end of machine, thereby making it a right or left handed 
machine, adapted to cut in all corners. 

The single machine strikes 150 and the double 300 blows (150 on each 
side) per minute, and feed forward on the track one-half inch at each 
stroke, or 6 feet per minute, and cut from J inch to 1 inch in depth 
(according to the stone) each time over. 

The single machine cuts from 40 to 80 square feet of channel in mar- 
ble and limestone, and 80 to 100 in sandstone per day. The double 
machine cuts from 75 to 150 square feet of channel in marble and lime- 
stone, and 150 to 200 in sandstone per day. 

Machines for sharp grit sandstone are fitted expressly for that pur- 
pose with short guides and cutters specially adapted for that stone. 

Each alternate tier of blocks can be cut of any desired width by 
placing the machine a greater or lesser distance from channels pre- 
viously cut, or channels can be cut between, thus giving a great variety of 
sizes, even with double machine. 

The channels cut are straight and true, like a tooled face. The stone 
is all saved in quarrying with these machines. Clean, open channels cati 
be cut with these machines for less than half the net cost of any other 
process. 

The machines are mostly wrought iron, and made in the most sub- 
stantial manner, and in the hands of skillful operators need few repairs, 
as the concussion from the blow is confined to the gang of cutters and 
completel}^ cut off from the machine by the intervention of the com- 
pound yielding levers with rubber springs, which are connected to and 
operate them. 



TESTING APPAEATUS 

FOR DETERMININa THE COMPRESSIVE, TENSILE, AND TORSIONAL 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

Made by Riehle Brothers, Niuth street above Master street, Philadelphia. 

This firm has constructed apparatus to make the above tests, and on 
application will furnish an illustrated circular giving sizes of the speci- 
mens they are prepared to test. Their charges are for each test for 
compressive or tensile strains, $1 to $2; for torsional strains, |3. 



UNDERGEOUND TELEGRAPH. 

The plan for an underground telegraph, devised by William Radde, 
518 Pearl street, New York, is ingenious, and is noticed here as it might 
be used on shore in place of the inultii)le cable in the Army torpedo 
system. 



6o4 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



It consists of iron pipes containiug small ^lass tubes held in position 
by paraffine wax. Through the tubes naked copper wires are drawn. 
For lateral connections, as well as^^convenience in laying, traps are used 
into which the pipe is screwed, the wires ])assing over non-conducting 




bridges, thus allowing any wire to be taken out and replaced without 
interfering with the working of others. The pipes are connected with 
a coupling, which, after being bolted together, is completely sealed ; the 
traps are closed and sealed in like manner. 



MILITARY ENGINEERING. 

Capt. James C. Post, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 

Military engiueeriDg as shown at the IiiterDatioual Exliibition com- 
prises the subjects ot armor phiting, the construction of barracks and 
fortifications, and the formation of bridge equipages. 

These will be described in the order named, and are exhibited by the 
Governments of Eussia, Spain, Sweden, the United States, the Atlas 
and Cyclops Works of Sheffield, England, the Morgan Iron Works of 
New York City, and the establishment of Fried Kriipp, of Essen, Ger- 
many. 

ARMOR PLATING. 

The English exhibit of armor plating is made by the Atlas Works of 
Messrs. John Brown & Co. and the Cyclops Works of Messrs. Cammell 
& Co., of Sheffield, England, which have been engaged lor years past 
in rolling plates for the English war vessels. Four plates are exhibited 
by the former and three by the latter, all of the specimens except two 
being i^lates that have been submitted to tests, the effects of the shot 
being shown. 

The thinnest plate exhibited, 2 inches thick, made by Cammell & Co. 
is a portion of the deck-plating of the new English war vessel Inflexible 
and was tested with a 6 pound S. B. gnn. Three shots fired with a 
6-pound spherical shot, a charge of IJ pounds R. G. L. powder, and with 
a range of 30 feet, resulted in an average i^enetration of about 1^- inches 
with a bulge at the back of 1 inch, the plate being badly cracked. 

The next in thickness, two 8-inch plates, one from the establishment 
of Cammell & Co., and made for H. B. M. S. Rupert, and the other made 
bj^ John Brown & Co., were both tested with the 8-inch S. B. 68-pound 
spherical shot, charge of 13 pounds powder, and range of 30 feet. Nine 
shots were fired at each with about the same results, that is, an average 
penetration of 2J inches, IJ inches bulge on the back with cracks. 

The 9 and 11 inch plates, the former made by John Brown & Co., and 
the latter by Cammell & Co., for H. B. M. S. Temerairo, were tested with 
the 7-inch M. L. R. gun, charge. 14 pounds R. G. L. powder for the for- 
mer and 18 J pounds for the latter, with a range of 30 feet. Four Pal. 
liser elongated chilled iron shot were fired at each, with an average 
penetration of 7 inches, the former having a bulge of 2J inches at the 
back, and being considerably cracked, while the latter had a bulge of 
only 1 inch, and was without cracks. The edge of the holes iu both are 
ragged, and there is no indication of a separation of the different lay- 
ers of which the plates are formed. 

605 



6o6 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

The 14-incli i)late exhibited by John Brown & Co., and which has not 
been tested, is a specimen of thickest plate that establishment had rolled 
up to October, 1876. During that month, however, they succeeded in 
rolling a plate 24 inches thick and 10 feet in width, which is now the 
thickest and widest plate that has yet been rolled by any establishment. 

The piece 21| inches thick in the collection of Oammell & Co., is a 
portion of the plate made for the Italian Government, and tested re- 
cently at La Spezzia with the 100 ton Armstrong gun. This gun, fired 
with a charge of 341 iDOund powder, and a shot weighing 2,000 pounds, 
completely pierced this plate, the strong backing and 30-iuch spin of 
target, the resistance of which is supposed to equal the sides of the 
great Italian iron-clad Duilio. 

The only other specimen of armor plating to be found in the exhibi- 
tion is one from the Morgan Iron Works of John Eoach & Son, New 
York City. This plate, 10 feet long, 3 feet 8 inches wide, and 12f inches 
thick, represents the iron plating to be used on the iron-clad Puritan, 
now constructing at Chester, Pa, There being no rolling-mills in this 
country capable of rolling a plate of this size, this specimen was forged. 
It is now, however, intended to attach to the rolling-mill at Chester, 
Pa., the necessary machinery for rolling j^lates of this thickness. 

Recent results showing the wonderful penetrative power of the heavy 
ordnance now being experimented with, the targets representing the 
heaviest plated vessels having now been pierced, has again brought up 
the question of the desirability of increasing at the expense of flotation 
the thickness of the armor-plating of vessels of war beyond that already 
made. The following remarks upon this subject, showing the immense 
flotation now required for the thickest plated vessels, are taken from 
the Engineering Journal, which quotes from the London Times : 

The double turret ship Inflexible, designed as an improvement upon the Russian 
Peter the Great, will herself be surpassed by the two Italian iron-clads which are 
building at La Spezzin and Castlemore. We, of course, are speaking of thickness of 
arnior, and not of the other questions discussed between Mr. Reed and Signor Matteo. 
While the Inflexible's turrets are formed of a single thickness of 18-inch armor, and 
her armament consists of four 81-ton guns, the turrets of the Dandola and Duilio 
are built of plates 22 inches thick, and are armed with four 100-ton guns, 30 feet long, 
and having a caliber of 19 inches, manufactured by Sir William Armstrong & Co., 
and, with a charge of 300 pounds of powder, are supposed capable of carrying a shot 
2,000 pounds in weight. Nor is this all, for the manufacturers of the armor for the 
Italian ships, Messrs. Cammell & Co., of Sheffield, have publicly stated that they 
are willing to roll solid plates 30 or 40 inches in thickness as soon as a gun has been 
constructed of sufficient energy to penetrate their 22-inch plates, and the challenge 
will probably be accepted sooner than they anticipate. For the moment the ad- 
vantage seems in favor of armor, but its supremacy is being gradually undermined 
by the gunnery experiments at Dulmen. A few months ago the 35^-centimeter 
Krupp gun, although weighing only 57,500 kilograms, pierced a target representing 
the citadel of the Inflexible, that is, 24 inches of iron in two thicknesses, at a distance 
of 1,800 meters. Where this competition between guns and armor is likely to end it 
is impossible to say, but as far as the exigencies of the Navy are concerned the limit 
of weight seems to have already been reached, for the simple reason that the buoy- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 6oj 

ancy of our iron-clads cannot with safety be further diiuiuished l)y the burden of 
heavier armor and arniauicnts. If we add to the weight carried for defense, we must 
either reduce the nature or number of the guns or dispense with them altogether, 
depending entirely upon tlie effect of ramming; since it is clear that it would be un- 
desirable for many reasons to add to the size of our sufficiently unwieldy irons-clad, 
the more especially as a great proportion of their hulls is mere floating material, ren- 
dered necessary to support the armored forts. Hence, to increase the weight of the 
armor and the batteries inevitably adds to an enlargement in the dimensions of tlie 
unprotected parts of the sLip. The Sultan, with its 9-inch armor and twelve guns, 
has a displacement of 8,899 tons, but the Devas'ation with 12 inch armor and only 
four guns, has a displacement of 9,06'2 tons. In the case of the Inflexible a total 
length 3'20 by 75 feet is required to float a citadel 110 feet in length h^ 75 feet, and 
although the design in her construction was to put a battery on a thin iron ship, 
merely protecting the vitals with armor plating, she will have, when all her weights 
are on board, the enormous displacement of 11,407 tons. 

The experiments made at Shoeburyness during the past month to test 
the accuracy and range of the 81-ton gun, now that its caliber has been 
increased to 16 inches, have been completed with entire satisfaction to 
the committee in charge. The mean deviation was found to be exceed- 
ingly small, and the range, 1,100 yards, an average of five shots fired at 
1° elevation, and 3,000 yards, an average of five shots at 4° elevation. 
Being fired over water, the shors ricochetted, and, in some instances, 
the second point of contact was from 12,000 to 13,000 yards from the 
point of firing. Its ultimate calculated capacity is a penetration of 27 
inches of solid armor at a range of 1,000 yards with a shot weighing 
1,000 pounds. As soon as a target can be constructed for this purpose 
experiments will be at once commenced to test this power of the gun. 

KRUPP'S CANON A CUIKASSE. 

This novel arrangement, invented by Fried Krupp, of Essen, Germany, 
for the protection of the guns and gunners of a battery, was shown by 
a model in his exhibit. 

It is proposed to build the wall of blocks of forged iron, placed verti- 
cally, of a thickness proportionate to the caliber of the gun used, ihe 
possibility of constructing blocks of forged iron a meter and a meter and 
a half thick, enabling a wall to be made of sufficient thickness to with- 
stand the heaviest ordnance. This wall is also braced by inclined struts 
placed under the tie beam at the top of the shield. 

The following description of the canon acuirasse and its use is taken 
from a pami^hlet written by the inventor : 

The " canon a cuirasse" is the same on the whole as the cast-steel cannon of Krupp, 
being loaded at the breech. This cannon is furnished at its mouth with a spherical 
protuberance, B, which is fitted in a corresponding space in the muraille-cuirasse C. 
The pivoting cent* of the cannon is at the middle of the sphere, and this sphere com- 
pletely closes the embrasure. This disposition, that is, the union of the cannon and 
the cuirasse by means of this sphere, permits the movements of the former in all di- 
rections. The space behind the wall is sufficient to allow all the necessary vertical 
and horizontal movements being made. 

To maneuver the cannon, it is placed on a gun-carriage, which, having neither to 



6o8 



INTERNATIONAL -EXHIBITION, 1876. 




THE ENGINEER SECTION. 609 

suffer the shock or lessen the recoil, Ctau be simpler aud lighter than the ordinary car- 
riage. The construction of the carriage varies according to its us(j, whether it is placed 
behind a viuraiUe-cuimsse or in a movable tower, or is for large or small caliber. 

For elevating or depressing gans of large caliber, hydraulic apparatus worked by 
compressed air may be used with advantage. This apparatus is placed under the 
ground; a simple hand-lever, attached to the carriage, gives the necessary elevation. 

The movements of the cannon may also be facilitated by counter-weights or other 
mechanism of this kind. For guns of small caliber, a rack on the arc of a circle or 
any elevating apparatus will suffice. 

Behind the muraille-cuirasse the carriage is given lateral movements by means of 
wheels fixed on a frame rolling on semi-circular rails. In movable towers the carriage 
is fixed, the tower giving the lateral movement. 

To aim, an apparatus is used fastened to the cannon but placed high enough to be 
able to see over the tnuraiUe-cuirasse, or to traverse an opening in covered batteries. 
To determine the elevatiou a quadrant may be used. 

The pointing is independent of loading, aud the two operations can be carried on 
at the same time. 

Cannon a cuirasse of large caliber may be employed with advantage for sea-coast 
defense, aud may be constructed of three different kinds, viz, the immovable straight 
muraille-cuirasse, the cuirasse tower, and the cuirasse with its cannon placed on a turn- 
ing platform behind a second cuirasse, semicircular and fixed, and furnished with a 
horizontal opening or cut for an embrasure. 

The conformation of the coast, aud the nature of the navigable waterway, which 
determines the direction of the advancing ships, are to be considered in selecting the 
kind of battery to be used. 

This system may be applied to batteries already constructed and to guns of small 
or medium caliber by closing the rear of the embrasure by plates of iron of sufiicient 
thickness to admit the sphere at the mouth of the gun being fitted into it. 

The canon a cuirasse may also be easily employed on armored vessels when their 
construction is of sufficient solidity in the parts where they are to be placed to resist 
the recoil. 

No experiments as far as could be ascertained having as yet been 
made with this cannon a cuirasse, it is impossible to form a just appre- 
ciation of its value. 



BAERAOKS. 

The only countries presenting the subject of construction of barracks 
for troops are Eussia and Spain ; the former exhibiting a series of draw- 
ings * with the general directions for their construction, and the latter 
models of the barracks built near the cities of Madrid and Coruna. 

The following translation of the circular issued by the Eussian minis- 
ter of war in 1875 gives a general description of those built for the Eus- 
sian army : 

In August, 1875, the greater part of the Russian army being without barracks of a 
kind needed by a well organized military force, especially one in which a system of 
obligatory military service of short terms obtains, the construction of barracks formed 
an exceedingly necessary Avant of the country, and the Government was highly desir- 
ous of supplying it. As the amount of money necessary for such a purpose was very 
great, the Government expected to be assisted by the counties aud towns which had 
the greatest interests in having the soldiers quartered in barracks instead of having 

* Plate 2 of the series is here inserted. 
39 CEN 



6lO INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, 1876. 

them distributed in houses and villages. Accordingly the minister of war, to give 
some idea of the wishes of the Government, caused drawings to be made for infantry 
and cavalry barracks, these barracks to be built by the city and county governments 
assisted by the General Government, each paying about one-half of the expenses. 

The organization of the grenadier and army regiments with four battalions on peace 
footing was taken as a basis for this project. 

COMPOSITION OF THE REGIMENT. 

Staff and field officers 7 

Commissioned officers 57 

Soldiers and musicians 1, 937 

Soldiers alone , 1, 897 

Paymaster and clerks 6 

Priest 1 

Soldiers who do not belong to the file, such as bakers, tailors, &c 106 

Horses for officers and transportation 48 

STAFF. 

Staff or field officers . 3 

Commissioned officers 5 

Paymaster and clerks 6 

Priest 1 

Clerks and hospital attendants 74 

Horses - 48 

COMPOSITION OF EACH BATTALION. 

Field officers 1 

Commissioned officers 13 

Non-commissioned officers and soldiers 474 

Each battalion has four companies, and each cohipauy three commissioned officers 
and 120 non-commissioued officers and soldiers. The company is divided into two 
platoons, four half platoons, and eight divisions. 

The following are the principal ideas that have been adopted for the construction 
of barracks and the other necessary buildings for quartering a regiment of the above 
organization. 

The officers' quarters must be built near those of their command, and the soldiers' 
barracks must have near them all the buildings that are necessary for the soldiers' 
convenience, such as kitchens, store-rooms, ice-houses, &c. 

The barracks for the soldiers are to be of brick, two stories high, with an iron roof, 
the building to be of sufficient size to accommodate one battalion, and must have sep- 
arate rooms for each company. The kitchen is to be of one story, and built near the 
battalion barracks. In connection with the kitchens there must be dining-rooms of 
sufficient size to dine all the battalion at once. Between meal-hours the dinning-rooms 
are to be used as school-rooms. 

The clerks, hospital attendants, carpenters, and smiths are to have a separate build- 
ino', and in this there is to be a room to be used by the battalion surgeon for receiving 
the sick at the morning call. Near this building are the worksbo;)s, except the 
smiths' shops, which are separate. The store-rooms, clothing, and ammunition rooms 
must also be in a separate building. 

The regimental-court room is in the same building with the regimental office and 
guardhouse ; in the latter there should be cells for the confinement of prisoners. The 
officers' dining-room and regimental library are in the house occupied by the unmar- 
ried officers. The field officers and those married should have their separate build- 
ino-s. All the buildings must be far enough from each other to prevent danger of fire. 
The buildings must be so arranged as to form a square, inclosing sufficient ground for 




^//A:=iy/^^.3r7m'4'rk^=^^ 



e. Store-Roor 

f. Vestibule. 

g. Stairs and 
h. Water-Clos 




/JJJ". 



RUSSIAN BARRACKS. 



Plan of Upper Story. 




THE ENGINEER SECTION, 6 I I 

regimental drills. The materials to be used are brick and wood, but wood is only to 
be used for the smaller buildings. The depth of the foundation depends upon the 
character of the ground and must extend below the action of the frost. 

The exterior walls of the brick buiklings must not be plastered nor the wooden 
buildings clapboarded. The roofs are to be either iron, slate, or tiling. The floors in 
the buildiugs where men are to live must be of wood, resting on wooden beams. In 
the bakery and store-rooms they must be of stone or brick, and in the stables of hard 
clay covered with cobble-stones. 

The stoves in the barrack rooms must be of a kind that will assist ventilation as 
well as warm the building; those in the kitchens and bakeries must help getting rid 
of the steam and smell. The water-closets are placed close by the barracks, and are 
ventilated either by the chimneys of the barracks or by special stoves. In the work- 
rooms, independent of ventilating stoves, such as tailors' rooms and carpenters, &c., 
a separate stove must be j)rovided. The window frames of the brick buildings are to 
be double, with six inches between them. The fences are to be of wood and x)ut up 
only on the front side of the barracks. On the other sides ditches to keej) out animals 
should be made and the earth which is taken out made into mounds upon which shrub- 
bery should be planted. 

The plate gives the plan of the first and second stories of the bar- 
racks for a battalion of four companies. 

BARRACKS OF SPAIIN^. 

The barracks near the city of Madrid are bnilt on the four sides of a 
rectangle with a wing of the same section as the main building joining 
the middle of the longer sides, forming two open courts. They accom. 
modate 3,000 oflticers and men. It is three stories high and two rooms 
deep and is covered with slate supported by a single-roof truss. It is 
built of stone and bricks and rests on a foundation of stone. 

Though placed upon a hill called " Principe Pio," the foundation was 
very expensive and cost some 8300,000. The barracks were completed 
in 1861, with a total cost of $1,250,000. The barracks at Ooruiia are con. 
structed on three sides of a rectangle and are two stories high. They are 
built of the same materials as the preceding one. 

Xo further description of these barracks will be made, as they do not 
present awj particularly novel features. 



rORTIFICATIOXS. 

The exhibit of Russia contains a relief map of Sevastopol showing 
the siege and defensive operations of 1854 and 1855 and a description 
of the defense by General Todtleben, a model of an iron ^vater battery 
erected for the defense of Crondstadt, and a collection of drawings to 
be used by military engineers in designing fortifications. 

According to these latter, the fortifications are to consist of a series 
of detached works in defensive relation to each other and placed on a 
large circumference forming a vast entrenched camp, the forts being 
armed with heavy ordnance and requiring but small garrisons. These 



6l2 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, iZ-j^i. 

forts consist of an exterior front, two lateral fronts, and a gorge front. 
The exterior front is composed of two branches, each making an angle 
of 70^ with the capital. The lateral fronts make an angle of 140° with 
the exterior front and an angle of 70^ with the gorge front. 

The line of fire is 115 yards in length for each of the branches of the 
exterior front, 60 yards for the lateral fronts, and 280 yards for the gorge 
front. 

The exterior froDt is flanked by a caponniere at its salient, the lat- 
eral fronts by two half caponnieres placed at their junction with their 
exterior front, or the three fronts may be flanked by a caponniere placed 
at each of the latter angles. The gorge front is flanked by a capon- 
niere placed at its middle. A drawing herewith shows one-half of a work 
flanked in the second manner mentioned. 

These flanking caponnieres have one tier of casemates with a bat- 
tery of four guns on each of their flanking faces, the other faces being 
pierced for musketry. They are in turn flanked with musketry from 
the scarp-wall of the work, which is loop-holed in their immediate 
vicinity. The passage-ways into the caponniere lead from the parade 
of the work passing under the terre-plein. 

On their faces, which are subject to direct or vertical fire, shields are 
used, which, though they limit the field of fire, prevent but a small 
portion of the face of the caponniere being exposed. A section of the 
flanking caponnieres and its shield is shown. These shields may be 
faced with metal or stone. The plate gives a plan and section showing 
the arrangements of those constructed with chilled cast iron. 

Section Xo. 1 is a profile section through the exterior front and shows 
the command and thickness of parapet, width of terre-plein, and depth of 
the ditches adopted. This also shows the parapet without a scarp- wall, 
palisading being used instead. Scarp- walls, however, are also used, 
and they may be detached or semi-detached, but are always fully pro- 
tected by the glacis. The exterior and lateral fronts are protected from 
enfilading fire by large traverses placed upon the terre-plein, which ex- 
tend forward upon the parapet. In these traverses the magazines are 
placed, as shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5. 

The magazines are of two stories, the first consisting of three rooms, 
viz, the ante-room, opening upon the parade, the storage-room, and the 
filling-room. From this latter the ammunition is passed to the terre- 
plein through an opening next to the parapet on either side of the 
traverse. The second story consists of one large room extending the 
length of the three lower ones, and is used as a bomb-proof, the entrance 
being on either side of the parade end of the traverse. Intermediate 
traverses are frequently placed upon the terre-plein to divide the dis- 
tance between the large ones; these are much smaller, and do not ex- 
tend entirely across the terre-plein. Wooden bomb-proofs are usually 
constructed in these. Fig. 4, with its section, D E, shows the arrange- 
ment of these with the bomb-proof. 



/ 



RUSSIAN PERMANENT FOPT. 
G-eneral Plan . 




lENT FORT 



Section No. I. 




Section No. 2. 




/v.-.: Iiinnl' Iniliil l' I ■ 



*o ^J" 



J L 






RUSSIAN PERMANENT FORT. 



S&ctton, JV'o.7 







^^ 




#^ 


.. Shields faced with Chilled Cst-lrtn. 
h. Wooden Lining. 
0. Iron Earth-Support, 
d. Iron Tie. 



-3-^',-^*^-^ t-^ 






\S 







s 



RUSSIAN METAL SHIELDS FOR CAPONNlkRE. 







J 







"^i t/ie line ^JT. 




fENT FORT. 



/-^ 




.j-y. 




/'/ 



/:>■ 



,r^. 



■^te^ 




rinn of Uie ca.ycm.i/es ^ /r/it-erses./t dlinc/aife.on Me /i»r /)A. 



'Wmm 




r 



RUSSIAN PERMANENT FORT. 



r ■ • r .uT ^ i '\ c ... r r r 




/•«■- ^-l'- -(- 




rim 



-4 




r 



Jection TIAr 



^:m. /fw^ /^^ /^r^ '-^^ ^ /^^ /^*x -•'^ /<^!k /^^cC *^ .^^^ '/^^/"^^ 




!Tm 



'r 



-^ 



h~ - o 

So-" 









ItiU-rior clerali. 



Donnn 




THE ENGINEER SECTION. 613 

For quartering the troops barracks are built under the terre-pleiu of 
anj' of the fronts. When the gorge front is used for this purpose, 
as shown in plate, a face-cover is placed in front of the barracks to pro- 
tect them from the fire passing over the other fronts. Fig. 6 is a section 
of these barracks and face- cover. The selection of this front for quar- 
ters diminishes considerably the size of the parade, for when the other 
fronts are used for this purpose the gorge front consists of only a scarp- 
wall, which may be semi-detached, with an earth cover in rear of it of 
sufficient size to protect it. At the extremities of this front, where the 
entrances to the works are usually placed, the scarp-wall is constructed 
with a gallery behind it and is pierced with loop-holes for musketry, or 
embrasures for guns. In the latter case a magazine is built behind the 
gallery, and the position given for it is shown by the dotted lines in the 
angle between the gorge and lateral front. 

Batteries are frequently placed in the coverway, the command of the 
main work being sufficient to allow the guns of these batteries to be 
used at the same time as those upon the front in its rear. Traverses 
are placed ^between them to prevent enfilade fire. In connection with 
these batteries, a counter-scarp gallery is built which may be used as a 
bomb-proof, and behind which the service magazines are placed. The 
ammunition is raised to the guns from the magazines through openings 
similar to those used with the service magazines before described for 
the main work. 

Iron shields Avith iron blindages are also used for sea-coast batteries, 
the battery at Orondtsadt, before mentioned as being represented by 
a model, having been built in accordance with the plans adopted for such 
batteries. There are several different methods given for constructing 
these shields, but it is not considered necessary to describe them all 5 
the two selected are taken on account of their representative character. 
For a vertical shield ten rows of iron beams 15 inches thick are dove- 
tailed together and bolted to a vertical iron frame stiffened by wrought- 
iron braces. To this shield adjoins an iron bindage composed of a series 
of iron beams which are covered with iron plating 1 inch thick, and 
upon this a layer of concrete 1 foot 6 inches thick is placed. On top 
of the concrete a row of old guns is laid, and these are covered with 
from 4 to 5 feet of earth. The spaces between the vertical supports at 
the rear of the blindage are to be left open during peace, but they are 
closed in case of war. The plates give the plan of this work; a cross 
and longitudinal section; and an exterioi and interior elevation. These 
show sufficiently the size of the different parts and the manner in which 
they are put together to make it unnecessary to describe it more fully. 

For inclined shields, as, for instance, those making an angle of 75^ 
with the horizontal, the construction of the shield is somewhat changed. 
In this case it consists of three horizontal rows of iron plates 3 feet wide 
and 9 J inches thick, Avith timber lining 6 inches thick, behind which are 



6l4 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

placed side by side a series of wrought iron -hollow beams 18 by 18 
inches, the whole resting on wrought-iron beams similar to those used 
in the vertical shield. The entire structure is supported by a founda- 
tion of masonry. The blindage used with the inclined shield is con- 
structed in a similar manner as that for the vertical shield. 

SPAIN. 

The exhibit of Spain contains models of the following works : Castle 
and fortress of San Juan de Ulloa, built on a sandspit about 1,000 
yards from Vera Cruz, Mexico ; a round iron tower with three tiers of 
casemated batteries; a watch-tower of masonry designed for use in 
Africa by General Arroquia ; the plan of Saragossa, showing the earth- 
works constructed and occupied by the French forces during the siege 
of that city in 1809 ; coast-line forts, constructed with concrete made of 
hydraulic cement and faced with concrete made of lead, to resist armor- 
plated vessels, by General Jose Herrera Garcia ; plan of the movements 
and battles of the Spanish forces against the Moors in Morocco in 1859 
and 1860, showing their encampments and bases of operation ; triangular 
fort with outside bastion, moat, and circular tower with center; ad- 
vanced detached work proposed by General Arroquia; a system of forti- 
fications designed by Lieut. Col. Felix Prosperi, and a system designed 
by General Arroquia. 

Beyond the above-mentioned, it is not proposed to describe any of 
these works, except the systems proposed by Prosperi and Arroquia. 

The former system, which is described by Lieut. Col. Emilio Bernaldez, 
of the Spanish engineers, was proposed by Lieutenant-Colonel Prosperi 
in 1743, while he was engineer of the Spanish army in Mexico, and was 
fully described by him in a treatise written at that time. " This system," 
says Bernaldez, '-'- was so little known, there being only three copies of 
Prosperi's treatise in existence, and one of these imperfect, that Zastrow 
in his 'History of Permanent Fortifications' does not even mention his 
name." This, together with the fact that some of the engineer officers 
of the German army made inquiries in regard to this system of Bern- 
aldez in 1864, induced him to publish a work describing it in 1868. In 
this Bernaldez claims that many of the ideas afterward advanced by 
Montalembert were proposed by Prosperi in his system thirty years be- 
fore. In speaking of it in his "La Fortification Polygonale," Colonel 
Brialmont remarks : 

That tlie first who proposed a rectilinear front with flanking batteries on its capi- 
tal was Montalembert. Without doubt the mother idea of this trace is to be fonnd 
in another work published thirty years before in Mexico by Lieut. Col. Felix Pros- 
peri, of the Spanish engineers, of the existence of which Montalembert was undoubt- 
edly ignorant. 

Without any discussion of the claim of Bernaldez, the distinctive 
features of this sj^stem will be stated, as given in the work : 

The ditches are wide, the profile strong, the terre-pleins being wider 



PROSPERI'S SYSTEM. 




r 



\ I 
i 



L 






iiii 



P ^ 



leCtrS. 



lale. 



-^ Meters. 









Meters. 



Section 1—2. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 6 1 5 

and the ramparts higher than anj' before the present time. (See plate.) 
The bastions are as large as Ohoumara afterwards proposed, and the 
covered way is furnished with a caseruated traverse at the salient. 
The flanks are constructed for three tiers of fire, two of artillery and one 
of musketry, and are concealed by orillons. There is also a construc- 
tion called by the author-" fijantes," which is an arrangement of case- 
mates by which the guns are loaded under cover and afterwards runout 
and fired. These casemates are placed in the face of the orillons next 
to the flank, and on different levels, the floor of each one being on the 
same level with the top of that immediately preceding it. In front of 
the door of each casemate there is a platform for the gun to stand upon 
when fired. By this' arrangement all of the guns are fired in the same 
vertical plane. Fig. 1 shows this arrangement, and Fig. 3 gives the 
gun when in the casemate and its position for firing. 

He also recommends oblique flanks consisting of a series of arched 
casemates arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 2. For this arrange- 
ment, as well as for the "fijantes," he claims the advantage of getting 
rid of the smoke with great facility. 

The ravelins are provided with the same flanking arrangements as 
the bastions. Iron folding shutters for closing embrasures are also 
proposed. 

In this system there are three orders, the simple, double, and re-en- 
forced order. In the simple order the ravelins are without flanking ar- 
rangements and the curtains may be of earth ; the bastions, however, 
are always of masonry. The double order is the one already described, 
and in the re-enforced order the fronts are provided with face-covers 
similar to those of many modern works. 

ARROQUIA SYSTEM. 

The following synopsis of the work published by General Arroquia, 
gives some of the reasons why changes are recommended in the present 
system, as well as describes the one proposed by him : 

Arroquia opposes the bastion and the present German polygonal s^^s- 
tem, because, in the first, all the guns are uncovered and the interior 
space is too limited, and in the second all of the guns that operate on the 
field, beyond the enciente, are uncovered, only the artillery of the ca- 
pouniere and interior redoubt being sufficiently protected. He objects 
to all outworks because they mask the fire of the enciente without 
affording an equal protection in x>reventing bombardment, and would 
only allow them in extreme cases. He prefers to have enough shelters 
in the main work to guard against the evil effects of the bombardment, 
and to effect this proposes extensive casemates, and also makes the 
walls defensible from the interior. - Figs. 1, 2, and 3 show the profile 
proposed by him. 

He also objects to interior redoubts of masonry of the form which are 
now used, because they are subjected to plunging fire in the beginning 



6i6 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



of the siege without being able to return it. Si^eaking generally, he 
opposes the placing of one work behind another so as to mask the fire 
of the one in rear, and he places his so as to have the greatest fire possi- 





"tb 



Scule. of o.o25 To 2.000, 



f f f f 



3jKe7'j„ 



ble on the heads of the saps and besieging batteries of the enemy, and 
covers all the guns so as not to expose them to fire except from the 
point* they are firing at. This method of protecting the guns is shown 
in Fig. 4. The embrasures should be only large enough for the muzzle 




ScoZe of o^€oS 3* J[ooo, 



Zo 



Meters 



of the piece to pass through. To accomplish this and at the same time 
admit of the gun being fired at different elevations, he has devised the 
gun-carriage given in Fig. 5. By turning the screw the whole gun is 




TtuXej'S, -^ 






II, i 




^Pl 






Fig 2. 




Jcuh^^cM-:^., 



:_7^- 




Ji«?= ./ c.>,S S /.»c. 



ARROQUIA'S SYSTEM. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



617 




6l8 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

raised or lowered, wMcli allows the muzzle to be kept at the same height 
for all elevations. To protect the fronts of the casemates in a country 
like Spain, where iron is expensive, he proposes covers of earth and 
sand. 

Arroquia recommends a polygonal system without advanced works, 
which consists of a general line of retrenchments flanked by caponnieres 
which sweep the ditch and road. These caponnieres are entirely de- 
tached from the main work and are surrounded by strong batteries 
placed in casemates similiar to those of Haxo and form nuclei for de- 
fense. (See Fig. 1.) Large traverses perpendicular to the faces of the 
main work are placed on each side of the caponnieres and sufficiently in 
advance of them not to mask their fire sweeping the ditches. These 
give additional fire upon the field beyond the work and cross-fire in 
front of the caponnieres. The traverses terminate in an iron tower at 
their front end, which serves to protect them from an enfiladed fire. 
(See Fig. 1.) These nuclei ar^ arranged to repel an attack from the 
rear as well as front. 

Arroquia claims for this system a unity of defense, and also that 
when one of these nuclei is captured the others will have to be taken in 
succession. 

Advanced works are only used when strategical considerations re- 
quire an intrenched camp. Should they be needed, Arroquia recom- 
mends the adoi)tion of those similar to that given on Fig. 6. 

This completes the subject of fortifications as presented by the Exhi- 
bition, with the exception of a book, which it might be w^ell to mention 
here, written by Ool. G. A. Van Ktrkwigk, of the Netherlands Corps of 
Engineers, used as part of a course of reading at the Royal Military 
Academy of that country, and which gives a very complete history of 
fortifications, commencing with the system proposed by Albrecht Durer, 
up to the present time. 



PONTON EQUIPAGES. 

RUSSIAN PONTON EQUIPAGE. 

The Russian ponton train (a model of which is exhibited) consists of 
fifty-eight carriages, two of which are loaded with anchoring boats and 
the remaining fifty-six, with twenty -eight pontons, eight trestles, and 
bridge-flooring, balk, «&c., for thirty-seven bays, or a bridge of 806 feet 
in length. The material for two or three bays is always held in reserve, 
in constructing this bridge, to be used in making repairs. For conveni- 
ence in maneuvering and using the train, it is divided into four sections, 
two of fifteen carriages each and two of fourteen each. 

In the ordinary bridge there are five balks to each bay, and a bridge 
of this kind is sufficiently strong to allow the passage of all kinds of 
military vehicles except siege-carriages ; for these an additional balk 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 



6r9 




620 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



is added to each bay. When only light loads are to cross, a less num- 
ber than five balks to each bay is frequently used. 

The pontons are flat-bottomed, iron bateaux, and are composed of 
two pieces fastened together end to end. More than two pieces are 
used for a single float when it is desired tu have a bridge of greater 
width than 10 feet, the number used being regulated by the width re- 




W 
o 

.s 



quired. The pieces are of two kinds, the bow and the body piece. The 
body piece is 11 feet 5J inches in length, and is terminated by vertical 
planes at its extremities. Its cross-section is uniform and of the shape 



I 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 621 

of a rectangle with its lower angles rounded. To give greater strength 
these angles are covered with a sheet of iron which extends about 6 
inches on the side and bottom beyond the angle, and is riveted to them. 
The width of the piece is 6 feet 2f inches, and its depth 2 feet 5 inches. 

The bow piece, 14 feet 1 inch in length, is terminated at the rear by a 
vertical plane, and is for 10 feet from this plane of tlie same uniform 
cross-section as the body piece. The remaining 4 feet 1 inch diminishes 
to 3 feet 4 inches in width and to nothing in depth, the extreme end 
being 4 inches higher than the gunwales of the piece. Each of these 
pieces are provided with three chaffing battens. Their carrying capac- 
ity is about 4J tons and their weight about one-third of a ton. 

A ponton always consists of a bow and a body piece or two bow pieces, 
two body pieces never being used without a bow piece. For bridges of 
extra width, two bow pieces are always used for the two ends of the 
float, the increased width being given by i)lacing body pieces between 
them. When three pieces are used it is called one-and-a-half ponton, 
and when four, double ponton, &c. 

The body piece cannot be navigated alone, and it is only with great 
difficulty that a bow piece can be. To assist, therefore, in anchoring 
the ponton two anchoring boats are added to the train. These boats 
are 20 feet 3 inches long, 5 feet 9 inches beam, and 2 feet 8 inches deep, 
with sharp bow and stern, and are manned with six oars. 

The trestles used are of the pattern designed by Colonel Birago, of the 
Austrian Imperial Engineers. A full description of the Birago bridge 
equipage maybe found in a work entitled " System of Military Bridges," 
by Brig. Gen. G. W. GuUum, Colonel Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 
There are always twelve sets of legs, four of 8 feet in length, four of 12 
feet in length, and four of 16 feet in length, carried with the eight trestle- 
caps in the train. 

The balks, chess, and half-chess are also of the same dimensions as 
the Birago balks and chess. The balks of two adjoining bays in the 
bridge meet on a sill directly over the axis of the ponton. Each of 
these sills rests upon two transoms, which extend across the ponton from 
side to side, and are fastened to the gunwales. 

The carriages are of wood, and are very simple in construction. They 
are of six kinds, the difference between these being only in the arrange- 
ment to carry their respective loads. The following table gives the 
number of each kind in a train, and their loads : 

Eand. Xo. of kind. Loads. 



32. Half ponton balks and chess. 

4 Half ponton trestles. 

12 Half ponton sills, chess, and span wheel. 

4 Half ponton and smaller articles of the bridge equipment. 

4 Half ponton and tools. 

2 Anchoring boats and electrical instruments. 



622 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



In addition to the above each of these carriages carries the forage 
of the six horses b}^ which it is drawn. The weight of the unloaded 
carriage is 1,260 pounds, and from 4,200 to 4,750 pounds loaded. 




The anchor used for holding the pontou in position is arranged so 
as to hold with both flukes at once. The two flukes are attached to the 
arm which passes through the shank and revolves till it reaches an 
angle of 60^ with"it. To remove this anchor a tripping line is attached 
to the ring li. (See figure.) 

The bridge is constructed either by successive pontons, by parts, rafts, 
or by conversion. The trail and flying bridges are also used. For ferry- 
ing troops across a stream rafts are made a single bay in length. The 
proper width to this is given by using two or more pieces of a ponton for 
each float. 

SPANISH PONTON EQUIPAGE. 

This train, a model of which is also exhibited, is composed of fifteen 
carriages, which carry sufificient material for a bridge 55 yards in length 
and 10 feet in width. 

The bridge equipage is the same as that designed by Colonel Birago 
except the pontons. These are made of steel, and are of about the same 
dimensions as the wooden bateaux of Birago. 

The carriages are of wood and are similar to those of the Russian 
train, though somewhat heavier. They weigh unloaded 1,600 pounds, 
and loaded 4,000 pounds. Six mules are used for drawing each of the 
loaded carriages on the ordinar^^ roads. 



SPANISH MOUNTAIN PONTON TRAIN. 

This train, which is to accompany a body of light troops, is intended 
for crossing small streams and ravines in a mountainous country. The 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



623 




Fig. 1. 




F;^^. 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1877 




THE ENGINEER SECTION. 



625 



train consists of twenty mules, ui)ou which is loaded material enough 
for a bridge of 30 yards in length. Figs. 1 and 2 give the method of car. 
ryiug the material, the load in Fig. 1 consisting of 18 chess and 6 trestles- 
shoes, and that in Fig. 2 two sets of trestles. These are fastened upon 
a pack-saddle on the mule in the manner shown in the drawing. It is 
considered unnecessary to carry balks in this train, as sticks of timber 
of snfficient size for this purpose may be obtained from the woods of 
the adjoining countr3^ 

Figs. 3 and 4 give the manner of carrying engineer tools for use with 
advanced troops in a mountainous country. In Fig. 3 an iron frame 
work is placed upon an ordinary pack-saddle to receive the implements. 
The load consists of 12 shovels, 14 picks, and 6 adzes. The smaller tools 
and articles needed are packed in two chests, and these are placed upon 
the pack-saddle as shown in Fig 4. 

SWEDISH PONTON EQUIPAGE. 

The ponton equipage now used by the Swedish arm3^ (a model of 
which forms a portion of that country's exhibit) was designed and con- 
structed by Gapt. Y. Xorman, of the Royal Swedish Fortification 
Corps. The following is taken from the description given by him : 

The object of the bridge equipage which has lately been adopted in Sweden has 
been to remedy several defects which were found in the Swedish bridge equipages, 
and which are still found in those of some other countries. The principal of these 
defects are : 

1. That the wagons and their loads are too heavy and clumsy. 

2. That they are of different kinds, which makes it difficult to exchange an injured 
wagon for any other wagon of the equipage. 

3. That the methods of loading are too complicated. 

4. That the connection between the limber and the rear carriage is in most cases 
very stiff, which causes the wagon often to run on three wheels instead of four when 
traveling over stones or ditches, instead of following the irregularities of the ground 
with the requisite tiexibility. 

5. That the load is placed too high, which, together with the narrowness of the 
track, is a frequent cause of upsetting, a defect which must be remedied as far as pos- 
sible, especially in military wagons, which often have to travel over rough ground. 

6. That the carriages, although supposed to admit of being turned anywhere in the 
shortest x)ossible space, are still, by their own great length and that of the team, 
difficult to manage in sharp turnings, particularly if gate-posts, ditches, or other im. 
pediments limit the space. 

7. That, by the system of mounting the draft-horses, the tractile power of these 
animals is greatly reduced, which unnecessarily increases the number of drivers and 
horses; that more training is needed for the drivers, and that the difficulty of driving 
untrained horses, which must frequently occur during a campaign, is considerably in- 
creased. 

8. That several different sets of harness and methods of attaching the horses, which 
must not be confused with each other, are used in the same equipage. 

9. That the wood used for the wagons and some parts of the bridge has, besides its 
weight, the inconvenience that the materials, if stored for some length of time, decay 
and become leaky in the joints, so that the bossing, however carefully it may have 

40 CEN 



626 



INI ERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 





THE ENGINEER SECTION, 627 

been rimmed, sooner or later begins to loosen in conseqnence of tbe raising of the 
wood and subsequent relaxing of the screws, which causes a friction between these 
parts and the wood, and fiually makes the carriage more rickety and easier to break. 

10. That requisite spare x^arts are wanting, which, after a time, often prevents the 
perfect use of the equipage. , 

11. That the utility of the various parts of the train is too limited, which necessi- 
tates the use of a greater number and of more patterns than are requisite, and thus 
increases the weight of the equipage. 

12. That the lashings now in use, as well for loading the wagons as in the con- 
struction of bridges, are unsuitable and time wasting. 

13. That the train wagons of the equipage cannot, in case it should be found ex- 
pedient to divide the equipage, be properly distributed in sections for carrying pro- 
visions, forage, &c. 

14. And, finally, the want of cooking wagons, the need of which is being more and 
more felt, in order to provide the men with warm food at resting places. 

Comjyositwn of the equijyage^ and principles of its construction. 

The equipage is composed of twenty-eiglit carriages, of which sixteen 
are loaded as ponton or plank wagons, eight as trestle or balk wagons, 
and four as train or forage wagons. These wagons are all precisely 
alike, and can consequently receive any of the aforesaid loads. The 
front wheels of the ponton carriage run inside the ponton when loaded, 
the ponton being carried upside down. This allows the ponton to be 
lowered over the carriage until its highest point is only 1.66 meters 
above the ground, hence greater stability is attained. 

A self-acting brake is attached to the limber, so constructed that the 
action of the brake-pads on the wheels is produced by the horses hold- 
ing back. Thus the brake acts just as much as the occasion requires, 
and the horses are less strained by the pressure of the carriage. The 
brake can, by a simple movement, be put out of action, so as not to 
prevent the backing of the carriage. 

Pole-yokes and pole-straps are not used for the purposes of holding 
back the carriage or moving it to the rear, but the i)oles end immedi- 
ately' in front of the girths, and are supi)orted by the trace- tugs and 
by short straps connected with the breeching. By this arrangement 
the horses are freer in their movement, and the pressure on the shoul- 
der is completely avoided, which, in the hitherto used method of attach- 
ing four or six horses, is likely to annoy the wheel-horses. 

The wheels of the carriages are of wrought and cast steel, which gives 
them, with the same strength as wooden ones, a considerably greater du- 
rability, besides which a damaged spoke can more easily be replaced by 
a new one. The wagons are also made of steel, angular or L-shaped 
steel being preferred. 

The maximum weight of a loaded carriage is 1,596 kilograms. By its 
lesser length — 7.43 meters for the bow-i)ieceAvagon, 6.83 meters for the 
body-i^iece and train wagons, and 9.21 meters for the balk wagon, in- 
cluding the teams — the mobility of the train on uneven ground is in- 
creased, the turning in sharp curves is facilitated, the space requisite 



628 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

for parking, loading, and unloading for bridging in narrow sites is di- 
minished, and, finally, the length of the column is shortened. 

The four train wagons in the equipage each contain cooking vessels 
and one-quarter of the provisions and forage, and they can each be de- 
tached to accompany a quarter-equipage. By the use of this cooking- 
apparatus the food only requires to be cooked to somewhat above boil- 
ing point, after which the pot is inserted in the appartus, a red-hot heater 
having previously been put at the bottom of the latter ; and, filially, the 
cover is screwed on. The cooking still goes on, and the food keeps warm 
twelve hours after being boiled. This is an advantage in a campaign, 
particularly in rainy weather and heavy marching, when the soldier 
ought to get his food immediately after arriving at the bivouac, in order 
to rest afterwards. The labor of the cook and his helps is at the same 
time diminished, less fuel is needed, and the pots are made to boil in 
twenty or thirty minutes. 

The horses are attached to the carriages of the equipage in teams of 
three unmounted horses, driven by one driver from the carriage. This 
method, which has long been in use in the baggage ambulance and some 
park- wagons of the Swedish artillery and cavalry, has now been adopted 
also for the bridge equipages. The following calculation indicates the 
saving in carriages, horses, and drivers attached by using teams of three 
horses, instead of dividing the same load on carriages with teams of 
two. 

As experience shows a load of 560 kilograms to be a proper one for 
each horse, a team of two is consequently expected to draw 1,120 kilo- 
grams and a te^m of three, 1,680 kilograms. When, further, an empty 
wagon weighs about 553 kilograms ; a driver and his baggage, 85 kilo- 
grams, and one day's rations of oats 8.5 kilograms per horse, the available 
load of each horse will thus be about 233 kilograms in the double team, 
and 300 kilograms in the team of three. If, therefore, a net load of say 
25,200 kilograms is to be carried, it will require by teams of two 52 
wagons, 54 drivers, and 108 horses, and by teams of three, 28 wagons, 
28 drivers, and 84 horses. This shows also that a column of carriages 
drawn by teams of three occupies little more than half the length of a 
column of carriages drawn by double teams, each column carrying the 
same weight. 

Advantage is also claimed for teams of three over those of four or 
eight, in which inconvenience sometimes occurs by horses of different 
strength, endurance, and action being coupled together. The swing- 
trees of the carriages are attached to fixed cross-hounds, and the horses 
are made as independent of each other as possible ; even if only one 
horse should draw, the greater part of the tractile force would still move 
the carriage onward, and only a small component of it act on turning the 
carriage, which latter force would moreover be partly counteracted by' 
the pole. A weaker horse can, therefore, if necessary, be spared with- 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 629 

out any other iuconvenieuce resultiDg than a slight side- pressure. This 
is not the case in the latter teams. It is also easier to reinforce a team 
of three than one of four or eight, as, in the former, one spare horse can 
easilj^ and advantageously be added in front, while for this latter not 
less than a pair would be of use. With this wagon and team the horses 
are not so often exposed to tread on or over the traces, as the cross- 
hound and the swing-trees are pushed back when the carriage is held 
back. 

Detailed description of the carriage. 

The body of the carriage consists of the side-rails, which at the front 
and in the rear are bent down, forming angles to support the ponton and 
the binder of a large rear box, and of a smaller one for the limber, and 
of two foot-boards. The side rails, of L-shaped steel, are connected with 
each other by three transoms, also of steel, and are on the outside 
strengthened by a i)ine board, the upper edge of which is covered with 
iron, while the projecting inside edge of the side-rails is left free to sup- 
port cases, boxes, &c. On the sides there are six side-rail rings for fast- 
ening boxes, lashings, &c. At the rear end two vertically descending 
braces are riveted, each of which ends in a stirrup, formed by the bend- 
ing of the steel in a double angle, intended for sui)porting the binder, 
hanging spare wheels, &c. The binder is kej)t in place by fastenings 
attached to each brace. These braces are connected by a transom, to 
the under side of which the anchor-chains are attached. 

The rear box of the carriage consists of L-shaped steels and sides of 
iron plate, is in front fixed to the side-rails and behind fastened to 
the aforenamed stirrups, and steadied on the inside of the plates by ver- 
tical braces descending from the side-rails to tlie ends of the springs, 
as well as by slender wooden binders between the vertical braces. The 
front of the box is closed hy a door of iron jjlate in an iron frame, mov- 
ing on hinges at its base and fastened by padlocks and two overfalls 
affixed at the front suspending-brace of the box. The loose hind part 
of the floor of the box, which is of wood, with two narrow binding- 
irons underneath, is supported b^^ the floor-iron of the box. It can be 
pulled out backwards and has a tail-board on hinges, which is shut by 
a hook and its key. There is a ring and a loop at the front corners of 
the box for fastening the resting-chain of the anchor. 

A track formed by two L-shaped steel bars runs over the midst of 
the limber and is fastened to the first two transoms. These are con- 
nected at their front extremities b^^ a plate of steel, in which a bolt pro- 
jecting below the plate is fastened. The track thus formed, upon which 
the head of the king-bolt rests, moves forward when the carriage is 
turned. (See Fig. 1.) 

At the extremity of the bolt projecting below the connecting-plate 
above mentioned, a washer is placed which runs in a track formed by 



630 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



two L-shaped pieces of steel, the base being turned upwards to confine 
the washer. This track is fastened to four radial arms of steel, the shape 
of it being such that the track for the king-bolt head advances 0.2 meter 
whenever the limber is turned. 

The king-bolt is firmly secured to the intersection of the four radial 
arms and is of the shape given in the drawing (Fig. 2), and has a joint 
at «, formed by three ears from the lower part and two from the upper, 




through which the bolt & passes. The lower part of it extends in to the 
middle of the limber-chest, and is confined by four vertical braces, be- 
tween which it slides. 

When the road is even or smooth the rectangular frame given in the 
drawing, and which connects the extremities of the radial arm, rests 
upon the top of the limber chest, but when either of the wheels is rais€i,d 
by the unevenuess of the ground, the tipping .of the limber raises the 
frame with both tracks and king-bolt vertically, the latter sliding be- 
tween the four vertical braces in the chest, the joint, at the same time, 
relieving the strain by enabling the frame to remain horizontal. 

The limber-box rests directly upon the springs, and consists of one 
upper and one lower rectangular frame of L-steel connected by four ver- 
tical braces, the ends of which are bent and fastened to the sides of the 



THE ENGINEER SECTION (iT) I 

frames. In the middle of the box four slender L-shaped braces bent 
into two right angles and riv^eted to. the frames of the box, as well as to 
the npper and lower plates, form a track for the lower part of the king- 
bolt to move in. At the back of the box there are two steel doors 
framed in steel, and in the middle a hook for the water-bncket. The 
sides of the box are covered by thin plates, riveted to the frames. Two 
L-shaped apertures have been filed in the bottom of the carriage, which 
admit of the hounds being pushed back into the box up to the middle 
of the axle. The passages are protected by plates folded over them, so 
that the hounds can easily move forwards and backwards. These plates 
are fastened to the under frame of the box. 

A round iron riveted to the middle of the fore cross-hound runs back 
from it through a canal formed by the ux>per edges of the under frame 
of the box, ending in a harp -shaped hook, with a screw and nut for 
the levers of the brake-pads. These latter are of steel, and have ears, 
in which the lever-arms are fastened. There is also a brake-pad behind 
the left rear wheel, but this is tightened Jby a screw placed under one of 
the descending stirrups of the side rails. 

To prevent the pushing back of the fore cross-hound and the stopping 
of the carriage by the brake, two stopping-arms have been affixed to 
the front of the limber. These arms are connected with each other by a 
slender wooden binder and are raised by hooks. 

From the front of the side rails steel braces similar to those at the 
rear, but making an obtuse angle with the side rails, descend, forming 
here, likewise, a stirrup, though somewhat higher than the one at the 
rear, and being afterwards bent in a right angle to form a rest for the 
lower footboard. The stirrups are supported by arched flat-irons, run- 
ning up to the side rails and by traverse braces of round iron. They 
have movable noses for the securing of the pontons. 

The upper footboard is secured to the bod}^ of the carriage by the round 
irons riveted to the bottom of the upper footboard, the ends of which 
descend into metal pockets on the rest of the lower footboard. This 
latter has loops and rings for the securing of axes, spades, &c., and eight 
dowels for the balks. To steady itself the upi)er footboard has hook- 
ing braces, which can be hooked either in the forward boat-rings of the 
ponton or the front pack case, if the carriage be used as a baggage- 
wagon. When the carriage is empty this upper footboard is also used 
as a box for the driver. To this end, holes are made in the side rails in 
which the ends of the round irons are put. The requisite inclination is 
secured by two movable supports fastened to the front transom of the 
side rails and running into holes on the under side of the footboard. 

An L shaped steel and a slender wooden binder, which are both con- 
nected by hinges with the rear transom of the side rails, form a bolster 
for the object of keeping the chesses in place, and prevent them or the 
rear pack-case from sliding backwards. To support the chesses, both the 
steel and the binder are opened over the transom, but to support a 



632 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 



Section of Wheel 



Fi^3, 



pack-case only the steel one is opened. When balks are carried both 
remain down. In order to prevent the chesses from sliding forwards, 
there are also two other wooden bolsters connected by hinges with the 
front transom of the side rails. These can be pat down when pack- 
cases or balks are carried. 

The springs, six-leaved and 0.74 meter in length, are placed under 
the axle-tree, to which they are fastened by plates. The front end of 
the upper leaf is shaped into a hinge, moving around a bolt underneath 
the front brace at the end of the front braces. The rear end, which is 
strengthened by an additional plate, slides under a stirrup, which (on 
the limber) descends from the rear corner of the box and is prolonged 
backwards to form a sui)port for the lever-arms of the brakes. 

The axles are square above the spring, octagonal further in, and 
round in the middle, but cylindrical in the hubs. 

The hub (Fig. 3) is of cast steel and has no 
separate box. In case of great wear, however, 
a box of iron or other metal can be affixed. 
The spokes, of which the front wheels have ten 
and the rear wheels fourteen, are of square 
• steel, screwed into the hub and fastened to the 
felloe by two blades, of which one is merely 
folded over, but the other fixed by four rivets. 
Tlie holes made in the hub for screwing in the 
spokes do not extend through. The diameter 
of the worms is larger than the diagonal of the 
spokes. A steel plate, with a screw, forms a 
hood round the hub between the spokes, to re- 
ceive the greasing. The felloe is of T shaped 

steel. 

'Lite cqypurtenances. 

The lashings of 12-ply ropes are 18 feet long, 
having one end formed into an eye and the 
other whipped to prevent raveling. Weight, 
0.95 pound. The bolts of the poles or shafts 
are of round iron, 2 feet 6 inches long, bent in 
angle at one end, and with a hole for the pin 
in the other. Weight, 2 pounds. 

The foot-board has already been discribed 
in connection with tbe carriage. 
The wing-irons, or wings of round iron, are fixed to the upper 
pack-case by supports descending into pockets at the side of the box- 
The upper part of the wing is bent out, so as to afford a rest for the 
arm of the driver. Height over the box, 56 inches j breadth behind, 
l.S^feet; weight, 2.75 pounds. 

The pack-cases of pine are 3.54 feet long, 1,82 feet wide, and 1.35 feet 




THE ENGINEER SECTION. 633 

deep^ encircled b}^ a thin irou-plate lining. The sides are 0.4 inch thick, 
the bottom aad the top, 0.7 inch. Ou each side there are a hasp tor a 
padlock, a handle to which the straps are fastened, and two pockets 
for the supports of the wing. The top is connected with the box by 
three hinges, and can be opened while the case is on the carriage. The 
sides of the top are lined with plates, the edges of which fold over and 
fit into a small groove cut in the side of the box. The top is covered 
b}" painted canvas. Weight, 50 pounds. 

The tarpaulins of the rear box of the carriage are made so large that 
they completely cover its floor and fold over the sides. Weight, 5 
pounds. The weight of the padlocks is 0.50 pound. The tar-buckets 
weigh 0.75 i^ouud. The strains, with their hooks, weigh 0.85 pound. 

The swing-trees have movable shutting clasps to the hooks. The 
sides of the loops are made straight instead of bent. Weight, 3 pounds. 

The poles, of birch-wood, are 2 inches thick, 8.45 feet long excluding, 
and 8.75 feet including, the loop. An iron cylinder is fastened at a right 
angle to the rear end of the pole by riveted plates. At the front end 
there is a loop and a rectangular eye for the straps. Weight, 23 pounds. 

The water-buckets, 9 inches deep, with an inner diameter of 8 inches 
at the top and 7 inches at the bottom, are 'made of iron plate and 
strengthened by a thick steel wire around the upper edge, and another 
around the bottom. They have a handle of thick steel wire and a sus- 
pension shoe on the side. Weight, ^^ pounds. 

Tlie bridge equipments. 

The anchors. — Distance between the fluke ends, 3.08 feet ; length of 
the shank, 4.46 feet; thickness at the lower ends, 1.4 feet^ and at the 
upper, 1.1 feet. Outer diameter of the ring, 4.20 inches ; inner diam- 
eter, 3.4 inches. Breadth of the flukes, 6 inches. The thicker square 
iron around the hole of the shank, 2 inches square. Length of the 
arms of the fluke, 3.43 feet; diameter of the ends, 6 inches; at the 
middle, 1 inch ; diameter of the stop on the stock, 1.7 inches. Weight, 
120 to. 126 pounds. 

The grapple. — Maximum length 2.1 feet; lower diameter of the bodj^ 
at the junction of the arms, 1.1 feet; upper diameter,. 0.7 inch; diam- 
eter of the arms, 0.7 inch ; outer diameter of the ring, 2.4 inches ; inner 
diameter, 1.8 inches ; distance between the arms, 1.25 feet. Weight, 
14 pounds. 

The anchor cable is 240 feet long, 2.5 inches in diameter; weight, 82 
pounds. 

The trestle-legs are of two lengths, 9 and L4 feet respectively. The 
longer ones can also be used as abutment sills, and the shorter ones as 
balk-saddles. They are made of pine and of the same dimensions as the 
balks (5.4 by 4 inches). At both ends they have square dowels, of which 



634 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

one is encircled by a band and cap of iron plate, and the other by a 
band and a shoe with a hole for the toggle. At each end of the leg 
there is also a hole for the bolt of the binder of the carriage. Weight 
of the longer leg, 85 pounds ; weight of the shorter, 55 pounds. 

The trestle-cap is of pine (5.4 inches broad and 7 inches high) and has 
at each end an iron plate mortice for the legs. 

The shoe of the trestle is made of two thicknesses of spruce plank, 
dovetailed together, their grains running contrary, encircled by iron 
rings. It has a square hole in the middle, lined with iroi), and so made 
that the trestle-leg can move in both directions, and at one end a chain 
with a toggle. 

The jack is the same as used heretofore. Weight, 45 pounds. 

The towing ropes 60 feet long, of 18-ply rope, and whipped at both 
ends. Weight, 7.66 pounds. 

The chesses, 10 inches wide, 1.46 inches thick, and 11 feet long, are 
coDiposed of two spruce boards dovetailed together. A piece, 1.5 feet 
long and 0.8 inch wide, is taken out at each side for the passage of the 
lashings. Weight, 50 pounds. 

The half chess is the half of a chess, but without any dovetails ; it 
has two holes for the lashings. Weight, 25 pounds. 

The suspension chain is 7 feet long, not including the ring belonging 
to one of its ends. This riug is to be put around the top of the trestle- 
leg. 

The guard-ropes are like the towing-ropes, but only 30 feet long. 
Weight, 8 pounds. 

The ponton bow-piece, 13.7 feet long, 6.4 feet wide, and 2.69 feet deep 
outwardly, has a skeleton of L-shaped steel frames, 1.041 by 1.041 inches 
by 0.104 inch, of which eight are transoms, two support the partition, 
and one the bow. Between these frames the sides are covered with iron 
plates of 0.052 inch thickness, and the bottom by plates 0.078 inch. 
The gunwale of L-steel, 1.25 by 1.041 inches by 0.078 inch. The ponton 
has 9.9 feet loug chating-battens of spruce, 1.4 by 2 inches in section. 
Thtsie are rounded at the ends and fastened by small plates bent in a 
right angle and riveted to the transoms. 

The partition is straight, and connects at right angles with the sides 
and the bottom. The bow is slightly pointed, and curves upwards. 
The connection between the bottom and the sides is rounded; the bot- 
tom plates, which are riveted together at the middle of the ponton, run- 
ning up higher than the rounding. 

Two round shoes are fastened to the bow, immediately in front of the 
first transom — one by rivets and the other by bolts and heads. These 
shoes support the mooring-brace, which moves in them. 

To connect the forward and the stern ponton, each ponton has a hook- 
bolt passing through the partition, having a crank with a movable 
closing hook, which, when the crank is being turned, catches in a ratchet 
on a plate riveted to the partition. The hook-bolt passes through this 



THE EXGIXEER SEC 7 ION. 635 

plate, and around the hole there is an inclined surface, by means of 
which the grip of the hook is tightened when the crank is turned. At 
the other end of the partition there is a rectangular ^perforation of the 
gunwale to admit the hook-bolt of the other ponton, and at the inner 
side an extra plate is riveted around it. To connect the pontons at the 
bottom a loop-bolt is riveted to one of the outsides, at the last transom. 
A chain with a connection-fork descends from this loop-bolt. There is 
also fastened to each outside, near the partition, a packet, in which one 
of the arms of the aforesaid fork fits. Weight of the bow-piece, 920 
pounds. 

The body-piece, 11.7 feet long, of the same width and depth as the 
bow-piece, and having the same section dimensions and the same kinds 
of steel and plate, two vertical braces, with lashing hooks, running at 
right angles with the sides; chafing-battens along the whole length of 
the bottom; longitudinal braces through the whole sides; hook-bolts 
and connecting-forks at opposite corners of the partition ; four mast- 
shoes, and two forks for the carriage- binders. Weight, 910 pounds. 

The movable cleat is very nearly like the one lately adopted in 
Austria. Weight, 10 pounds. 

The wedge is of oak, 1.5 feet long, 3.75 inches wide, and 1.6 inches 
thick at the top, and 0.3 inch at the edge. Weight, 1 pound. 

The lashings, 15 feet long, of 15-ply rope, have one end formed into 
an eye and the other whipped. Weight, 0.5 pound. 

The bolster is of spruce, and has on one side two movable bolts, which 
fit into the rowlocks on the partition of the ponton. Weight, 9.50 
pounds. 

The balk-binder, 6.4 feet long, 4 inches thick, and 3 inches thick, of 
spruce, has in its middle a dowel for fastening the abutment sill of a 
bridge, and an arm which is movable around the dowel, with a ring for 
the oar when used as a support to guard-ropes. Each end of the bindier 
has a movable hook for securing the ponton, &c. Weight, 48.25 pounds. 

The balks of pine, 20.76 feet long, 5.4 inches thick, and 4 inches broad* 
have a cleat of thick iron plate at each end, and an iron shoe, forming 
an eye, riveted over the cleat for the lashings. Distance from the mid- 
dle of one cleat to the middle of the other, 20 feet. Weight, 138 pounds. 

The oars are of pine, and have the grip end shod with iron. This 
shoe is encircled by an iron ring with ears, through which passes a bolt 
for the rowlock. The oar-blade is sheathed with iron plate at its ex- 
tremity. Weight, 13 pounds. 

The side-rails are pine beams 3.5 by 3 inches, and have two holes for 
the lashings. Weight, 75 pounds. 

General description of the loading. 

1. Each ponton- wagon carries 1 ponton-section, 1 mooringcable or 1 
anchor, 15 chesses, 4 half-chesses, 1 saddle (short trestle leg), lashings, 
&c. 



636 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

2. The balk-wagons carry 8 balks, 1 trestle-cap, 2 long trestle-legs, 2 
suspension-chains, 2 trestle-shoes, 3 side-rails, 4 pickets, 1 maul, lash- 
ings, &c. 

3. The train and forage wagons are loaded on two plans, N^o. 1 ^nd 
No. 2. The two wagons Xo. 1 carry painters', saddlers', smiths', carpen- 
ters', and earth- works tools, as well as their requisite spare parts, and 
raw material, besides spare parts for the harness and carriage, veter- 
inary instruments, light, and cooking apparatus, &c. 

The two wagons Xo. 2 carry smiths' tools and stores, spare parts of 
the appurtenances and bridging equipments, material, stores, and bag- 
gage. 

Each of the train wagons carries, besides, 1 maul, 1 scythe, 1 forage- 
measure, nose-bags, and grooming implements for the spare horses, 4 
days' rations for 25 men, cooking pots for one meal for the same num- 
ber, and forage for one-quarter equipage (25 horses). 

4. Each wagon of the equipage has also ropes and pickets, 2 spades, 
1 ax, horseshoes, I'ivets, &c. 

The equipage can be divided into one-half and one-fourth equipage? 
and tlie ponton wagons separately into one-eighth equipage. 

Each equipage carries 8 supports, of two ponton-sections each, and a 
like number of trestle supports, 240 chesses, and 64 balks, with the 
necessary wedges, lashings, &c. This material will construct a bridge 
with 5 balks to each bay of 240 feet in length, with 4 balks to the bay 
and a roadway 1\ fee 20 feet, and 3 balks to the bay and road- 

way 5 feet wide, 477 feet in length. 

UNITED STATES POKTON EQUIPAGE. 

The ponton equipage used in the United States service, and which 
forms a part of the exhibit of the Cori)s of Engineers, United States 
Army, is composed of reserve and of advance guard trains. 

These trains were adopted in 1869 for the Engineer service of the 
Army, upon a report of a Board of Engineer Officers convened for the 
purpose of reporting upon tlie construction and organization of bridge 
trains for the Armies of the United States, and who, after a thorough 
study of the ponton equipage of the European nations, together with 
the experiences of such trains as were used during the late war of the 
rebellion, finally recommended the present organization. 

Reserve train equipage. 

This equii)age is divided into trains of five divisions each, four of 
which are ponton divisions and one supply division. Each division is 
accompanied by one tool wagon and one forge. 

The ponton divisions are complete in themselves, and each contains 
sufficient material for eleven bays, or a bridge 255 feet in length. 

Each of these divisions is subdivided into four sections, two of which 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 637 

are ponton and two abutment sections. The former contain 3 ponton 
wagons and 1 chess wagon, and the latter 1 chess and 1 trestle wagon 
each. Each section contains material for three bays, and is never sub- 
divided. 

The supply division is provided with articles to replace those worn 
out or lost, such as chess, balk, spare parts of carriage, &c. 

The carriages of each division consist of ponton, trestle, chess, and 
tool wagons, and of forges. 

The ponton and trestle wagons are alike, and have inclined wagon- 
beds, the front end being sufficiently high to permit the front wheels 
to pass under it in turning, thus allowing the carriages to turn in a very 
short space. 

The weight of each ponton and trestle carriage is 2,200 pounds, and 
loaded the former weighs 5,100 pounds and the latter 4,835 pounds. 
The chess carriage differs only from the ponton wagon in being of lighter 
construction and in having shorter side-rails. This wagon weighs 1,750 
pounds without its load and 4,130 pounds with it. 

The tool wagon differs from that furnished by the Quartermaster's 
Department, United States Army, only in the form of its body. The 
weight of the wagon without load is 1,800 pounds, and loaded 3,800 
pounds. 

The forge is the same as that issued by the Ordnance Department, 
United States Army, which weighs without load 2,217 pounds and with 
it 3,383 pounds. 

Each ponton, trestle, and chess carriage is drawn by eight mules or 
six horses, and each tool wagon and forge by six mules or four horses. 

The trestle is the same in form as the Birago trestle. The trestle cap, 
however, is a built beam instead of a solid one, as in the latter. 

The pontons are modeled after the French wooden flat-bottomed bat- 
teaux. They are each of about 9J tons burden, and have sufficient ca- 
pacity to transport 40 men fully armed and equipped besides its crew 
of pontoniers. Its weight is 1,000 pounds. The balks are of two kinds, 
the long balk, 27 feet in length, and the trestle balk, 21.8 feet in 
length. Both of these are provided with cleats or claws, the former 
with one and the latter with two at each end. In the ordinary bridge 
the corresponding long balk of the adjacent bays lap each other about 
6 feet and are firmly lashed together, and both to the gunwales of each 
boat, the cleats catching against the exterior of the boat. The length 
of each bay is 20 feet. The claws of the trestle balk catch on both sides 
of the trestle cap, and are so located that a trestle span is also 20 feet 
in length. 

The chess is 13 feet in length by 12 inches by IJ inches. To secure 
it from splitting, a rivet three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter is passed 
through each end. 

Advance-guard equipage. 

These trains are composed of four ponton divisions, each of which 
consists of eight pontons, two chess and two trestle wagons. 



638 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

The ponton wagons of this train are the same as the chess wagons of 
the reserved train and weigh, loaded, 3,735 pounds. The chess wag- 
ons weigh, loaded, 3,606 jiounds, and the trestle wagons 3,810 i3ounds. 

The total wagon and forge are the same as in the reserve train, 
though the load of the former is reduced about 250 pounds. This 
weighs, loaded, 3,638 pounds, and the forge, loaded, the same as before. 
Each of these carriages is drawn by six mules or four horses. 

When a forced march is to be made, the loads of these wagons may 
be considerably reduced by removing the chess which forms a i)art of 
the load of the ponton wagon, the rope from the trestle wagons, and 
reducing the number of chess carried by the chess wagons. In this 
case the number of the latter must be increased. 

The ponton is modeled after the Russian canvas ponton and weighs 
500 pounds. 

The trestles and trestle balks are the same as in the reserve train. The 
short balks are 22 feet by \h inches by 4J inches, with 20 feet 10 inches 
si)ace between the cleats. 

A more detailed description of these trains may be found in " The 
United States Bridge Equipage and Drill," published by the Corps of 
Engineers, United States Army. 



APPENJDIX 



REPORT OF COL. H. W. BENHAM, U. S. CORPS OF ENGINEERS, BVT. MA J. 

gen., u. s. a., upon laying of ponton bridges, ponton trains 
for light troops, picket shovel. 

United States Engineer Office, 

Boston, Mass., Septemher 16, 1876. 

Dear Sir : I have to ackuowledge your^letter of the 9tb iDstant, in 
which you invite me to mention for examination any "engineering 
works or appliances" that I may think worthy of consideration in the 
exhibit of oar cordis at the present exposition. 

Though there perhaps are not many such appliances, whatever the 
designer may think, of use, that would meet the sanction, as of general 
value, of other or outside boards or committees, yet, as there have been 
some devices that occurred to me during our recent civil war that ap- 
peared of value, especially as they haA e been noticed and have been 
thought worthy of attention in other distant nations, I will inclose you 
herewith a brief description of some of them, in case they should be 
thought of utility sufficient to receive the notice of the committee who 
may act on such matters. 

The matters to which the inclosed vsheets (of some 7 i)ages only) refer 
are : A project that occurred to me (in my command of divisions and of 
the Engineer Brigade) for a more rapid construction of ponton bridges 
than I had ever heard of, or even to this time have ever learned, after 
frequent inquiry, has ever been proposed by any other person, or prac- 
ticed in an 3' other army. 

It is a system, in following the nomenclature used, of ''by successive 
pontons," that I have styled as "by simultaneous bays." It is, in fact, 
a plan for constructing the bridge completely on the shore at which it 
arrives, and then swinging it into position for the passage of troops^ 
This can be done (as I have fully demonstrated and used it) in all ordi. 
nary positions, to the building of a bridge of 1,000 to 2,000 feet or 
more in length, in a matter of some 20 to 25 minutes. A bridge of 
l,'i00 feet long I have repeatedly had built and swung into position for 
the passage of troops in some 18 to 20 minutes. 

I am well aware that long before our time armies in retreat had cut 
adrift, had swung from one end, or destroyed in any way they could 
do, the ponton bridges upon which they had passed over water-courses. 
But I cannot learn of the record or suggestion even, of the regular or 
even the isolated construction of such bridges for the advance of an 

639 



640 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

armj^ in the way T propose, or in any other similar manner. Even the 
preparation of ^' rafts" as previously used ^'by conversion," as I under- 
stand, was done by "successive pontons," and never by having a con- 
struction squad at each bay to complete the whole, as this plan insures 
it, in about the same time that one bay only is finished by the plan of 
*' successive pontons." 

Such as this proposal is, it appears, with the devices afterwards 
mentioned, as well as others above alluded to, to have received the 
approval of our old professor of engineering — Mahan — with his inten- 
tion to introduce them in his course of instruction and a copy of 
whose note in reply to my letter, sending him a description of these 
projects 1 herewith inclose you. I also add to this a report of light 
but efficient ponton train that I got up for the Army of the Potomac, 
in the winter of 1863-'64, which you will see by the description and the 
reports of the weights (which were accurately taken, as I have the de- 
tails) involves a load of only \% tons including trucks for each 20 feet 
of roadway. 

I also send a description of a light " picket-shovel" of only 28 ounces 
weight that it occurred to me to devise, and propose in July, 1864, and 
which began to be called for in large numbers — by tens of thousands — 
as the last campaign of the war opened, early in 1865. This has been 
especially noted in foreign publications, and I may add that it was 
mentioned by General Meade as "universally approved," in an official 
letter recommending my brevet as major-general; and Greneral Han- 
cock, in acknowledging a sample of one hundred sent him on September 
13, 1861, says, "I have examined them, and without trial, I can say they 
are just what is wanted, and they could not be improved." Professor 
Trowbridge, our engineer agent in New York, and formerly of our corps, 
who aided me to get them made, pronounced them the "grandest in- 
vention of the war;" and Colonel Wiley, of the staff at City Point, 
expressed the belief, if our troops had had them at the Spottsylvauia 
campaign, that they " would have saved twenty thousand men," saying 
that, besides their proposed ordinary' uses, he had frequently seem them 
indented by musket balls, from use as shields for the head in advanc- 
ing" to battle. 

1 inclose a letter (slightly changed) such as I sent to Colonel Rug- 
gies. Assistant Adjutant General, Army of Potomac, reporting upon 
this improvement, and recommending its being provided for all infantry 
troops in the field. And to this I have appended a detailed descrip- 
tion that perhaps may suffice without any drawing, though a sketch- 
drawing is also sent with this. 

I noticed recently that even the " trowel bayonet" had been proposed 
for our cavalry in the Indian country for the purposes for which this 
shovel is designed; while from this it is obvious no injury or bending 
of gun barrels can be feared, as in the case in the use of the other im- 
plement. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 64 1 

There were some other devices that occurred to'me and were put in 
practice in the field-works I had constructed in Virginia, such as the 
modifications of the outlines of ditches for greater security as defenses, 
and for more permanence to their slopes 5 also in the arrangement of 
obstructions in front, in lieu of the old regular " troupe de coupj" such 
excavations were made irregularly, with the soft removed earth placed 
in i^iles between the holes, which formed an absolutely impassable de- 
fense, superior to any abatis or slashing. Yet such changes or modi- 
fications do not appear of importance enough for descrii)tion, or for 
more than a passing allusion in such a case as this. 
Yery respectfully, yours, 

H. W. BENHAM, 
Col. Ung^rs, Bvt. Maj. GenH. 
Capt. D. P. Heap, 

U. S. Engineers. 

West Point, April 21, 1869. 
My Dear General : Your letter April 12 reached here dnriug my absence on a 
trip to Washington. I need hardly say that I am very thankful for the trouble you 
have taken in sending me copies of your papers concerning matters of so much pro- 
fessional value, to which I shall direct attention in the course of my instruction here. 
It would be well, I think, for you to send copies of them to General Abbot, as of 
special interest to the school of practice at Willet's Point. 
Yours, very truly, 

D. H. MAHAN". 
Maj. Gen. H. W. Benham, U. S. A., Boston. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE LAYING OF PONTON BRIDGES BY THE METHOD' 
OF SIMULTANEOUS BAYS. 

As the plan of laying bridges by " successive pontons" appeared to 
require too great an amount of time, and so few men could be employed, 
even while a whole army might be idle or waiting, it occurred to me 
while inspecting the drill of the first ponton train attached to my com- 
mand during the late war, at Beaufort, S. 0., in April, 1862, that a much 
larger number of men might be employed, and with greater safety, by 
building the bridge along the hither shore, and with a bridge squad 
working simultaneously between each two x)ontons, the bridge, when 
constructed to a sufficient length, to be then rowed around to the de- 
sired position, and the ends attached to the shore. 

For this practice I directed the pontons to be placed along the shore 
at their proper distances, 20 feet, with a load of "chess" and "balks" 
between each pair of boats, as if left from a train which had closed to 
such distance, and had its teams wheeled sei^arately, when they could all 
(on the usual river banks) be unloaded simultaneously, or in the same five 
minutes ordinarily; and then, with bridge squads of five to seven men, 
they were to proceed to lay the bays between each two boats. I at first 
directed that the two outer balks should be placed in succession from one 
end to the other (of the length of bridge estimated as necessary to span 

41 CEN 



642 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

the stream), bat the movement of any part, or of the whole, proved so 
facile in the water that even the slight delay for this was found not to 
be necessary, and each or any pair or number of boats were brought 
together without hindrance or inconvenience from the incompleteness 
of the adjacent bays. 

In the construction of these bridges — the material having been placed 
along the shore as above stated — the force available was divided into 
^'bay squads" of about six men each, under an artificer or non-commis- 
sioned officer, and with a few simple and regular words of command the 
construction was commenced between each two boats at the same time. 
The squads (except the oarsmen in place, take their position upon each 
bay as completed and united, or partially united, to the adjacent bays. 

This union of all the bays is usually accomi)lished in from five to 
seven minutes only, and at nearly the same minute, with men at all 
skilled, at which time the whole bridge raft, of whatever length tried, 
was ready for moving, the men belonging to them being seated in the 
anchor boats, keeping them on a slight strain to guide the bridge out 
and during the constructing of the bridge raft one larger squad was 
engaged in x)reparing the hither approach or shore bay, while a second 
similar squad would start with the materials to construct the opposite 
approach, which was usually done by the time the bridge raft could be 
swung to join it, the last squad, of course, not being used, in case of 
an oi^posing force. 

When the raft was ready, the squad standing or sitting upon each 
bay, or if resistance or a fire was apprehended, the men with their 
arms if needed for the attack, are directed to lie down under the road- 
way in the pontons ; and a good additional relief man to be near each 
of the oarsmen, who are the only persons exposed above the gunwale, 
excei)t an officer or non-commissioned officer sitting near the oarsman 
of, say, every third boat. When the men are thus arranged, at the 
word given, the oarsmen all pull out strongly, especially from the center 
to the outer ends, as also in the anchor boats, to keep clear of the raft 
and to guide it, and the hither or pivot end moves also in a small 
circle held by ropes 5 and these rafts were brought into position (the 
outer ends moving with great rapidity) at the Eastern Branch* in from 
seven to eight minutes, generally, according to the current. During 
the movements all persons not needed for actual service were directed 
to conceal themselves below the gunwale, and preferably, for great 
danger, under the bridge way itself, where it was found that twenty 
armed men could be comfortably placed in each boat, which would thus 
give an active force of one man for every foot of bridge (or thirteen 
hundred men for the bridges there tried) that could rise from their cov- 
ered positions at the moment the farther shore was struck, to land at 
once, as a storming column, to sweep away any ordinary opposing force. 

This bridge raft, it is obvious, does not need that the farther approach 

* Of the Potomac Eiver at Washin 'ton. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 643 

should be laid (as it could uot be, if opposed) for the debouch of a 
storming column from it, for, by assuring that it shall be of full length, 
it must touch the opposite shore, so that men could readily land from 
it. And more than this, it has the advantage of being easily transfer- 
able to the other near positions if special opposition appears to be pre- 
l^aring at the point selected, the set of the boats being right for ready 
passage up or down a stream, and this quite easy with men at all trained 
at the oars. I found by trials on the Ax>pomattox in 18G4, that a long 
bridge raft was as easily wheeled or moved in any direction where it 
could float as a battalion of trooi)S. I found, also, after strengthening 
the end to go forward by thick plank shields, covering the whole ex- 
posed side of each of the first three or four boats, and putting extra 
binding balks well lashed on the chess, that with a good steamer, a long 
bridge raft could be towed several miles an hour against a pretty strong 
current, the axis of the bridge being on the line of the stream. This 
at times might be quite useful, as is evident, where a bridge was desired 
above the point occupied, but where it would be more dangerous to land 
the materials and construct It even as above. 

The further advantage of this system will be evident on a comparison 
with the old plan of ^' successive pontons," where, whatever space there 
might be, and how favorable soever the banks, nearly the whole of the 
troops had to remain idle, and perhaps exiiosed', while but one or two 
small bridge squads, of fifty or sixty men each at the most, could act. 
Eveiy truck and wagon has to come up and unload at the bridge end in 
succession; while the men have to carry on their shoulders the whole 
bridge reading and fixtures, in all cases the average distance of half the 
length of the bridge, or 600 feet for a 1200-foot bridge. And in long 
bridges, where double sets of men are used, they interfere most se- 
riously with each other, notwithstanding all precautions. The conse- 
quence is that many hours, not to say whole days even, are required for 
laying bridges of even a few hundred feet in length; besides, there be- 
ing no cover for the men as they approach the farther shore. 

This impracticability^ was fully demonstrated at Fredericksburg, 
where it could not be accomplished at all, in the face of even a mod- 
erate opposing fire, nor until that fire was previously silenced by other 
means; and to take up this bridge and reload it by this old system al- 
most an equal amount of time is required; while by this new method of 
" simultaneous bays," as stated, manj^ times the number of men can be 
employed to expedite the work, while the army is waiting — on ordinary 
banks, say eight hundred to one thousand men for a bridge of as many 
feet, although one-half the number may, if necessary, suffice for a rapid 
construction. The pontons are run oft' the trucks, and the chess and 
balks between each pair of boats are unloaded and placed readj^ for 
laying in the same five or ten minutes, the bridge raft completed in as 
many more minutes, and the bridge is swung ready for use in the same 
additional time as stated. While in swinging the bridge to its position 



644 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876. 

for use none of the men, even of the storming party, are exposed to the 
aim of the musket, except the directing officer or non-commissioned 
of&cer at every third boat and the two oarsmen to each ponton ; and 
these, especially the latter, with the oscillating motion of the body in 
rowing, together with the motion of translation in the large circle they 
are passing so rapidly over, would prove to be targets almost impossi- 
ble for the best marksmen to hit ; and the men would need to carry the 
roadway material but a few feet only to the pontons at the shore edge; 
and the squads can interfere but little, if any, in all their work. And 
in dismantling the bridge the same facilities for separating and reload- 
ing the different parts will be available. And as to the places suitable 
for constructing on this plan, I cannot doubt that, with good judgment, 
it can be used in nearly all ordinary positions. It would require, how- 
ever, in the case of rugged or high banks, a large force to assist, which 
must be readily available, from the fighting corps that are awaiting the 
bridge. Just prcA^ious to the battle of Chancellorsville, in the preparation 
for crossing below " Banks' Ford," at our position, where the river banks 
were some 80 or 90 feet high, steep and closely wooded, we had several 
'^ chute" ways cut, down which we intended to slide the pontons to the 
water, which, with a strong force to manage and hold them, we felt sure 
would be feasible, though there are few places more unfavorable for 
construction of a bridge upon this plan. 

I may add that, as simple and obvious to any one as this construction 
of a ponton bridge by " simultaneous bays " appears, T have never been 
able to learn that it has ever been tried, or suggested even, before I had 
made those experiments so successfully, as above described. 

PONTON TRAIN FOR LIGHT TROOPS. 

Another useful device, was a modification of our light or canvas pon- 
ton trains, which was made by the Engineer Brigade, under my orders, 
during the reorganization of the ponton trains at Washington in the 
winter of 1863 and 1864. This was, to reduce the width of roadway 2 
feet, the weight of the truck down to near 1,200 i)Ounds, so that, with 
the canvas ponton of 22 feet long, and 650 to 675 pounds, the whole 
weight of everything (including this wagon or truck) for 20 feet of bridge, 
that is, boat, balks, chess, anchor, cordage, and truck, was only 3,500 
pounds. For this, balks 4 by 4 inches were found to be sufficient, and 
that it would suffice to let them cross tbe boats alternately, (and not, as 
was usual to have each stringer or balk, cross hoth adjacent boats), and 
the balks were reduced to 23 feet in length, the chess or plank were re- 
duced to 11 feet in length, which gave a roadway of over 8 feet. The 
canvas of the boat was rolled to prevent crackily folding, and put in a 
long box equal to its width, which box held also the small cordage and 
tools and the wooden cross pieces of the boat frames. The balks were 
loaded first on the light, strong truck; next, the side frames; next, the 
chess in two sets, one over the fore and the other over the hind wheels. 



THE ENGINEER SECTION 645 

and the long box above, with the cable, and the anchor being beneath 
the balks, as usual. These light trains could be moved rapidly with six 
horses, or even with four horses on tolerable roads, and were found 
most effective for rapid marches, as they would readily bear up cavalry, 
and even light artillery. I may add that the reducing of the chess 2 
feet in length, for a narrow roadway, was called for from officers with 
the moving column, most of the other arrangements for this light train 
were directed by mvself. 

H. W. BENHAM, 
Brevet Major- General, 

Headquarters Engineer BRiaADE, 

AND DEFENSE OF CiTY PoiNT, YA., 

Marcli 23, 1865. 
Col. George D. Euggles, 

Assistant Adjutant- General^ Army of the Potomac : 

Colonel: As I have been called upon by different officers, including, 
with others, Colonel Duane, acting chief engineer Army of the Potomac, 
for my opinion as to what troops (and in what proportion) should be 
furnished with the new array piclcet shovel, I would therefore wish to 
give you, with that information, a description of this implement, with its 
uses, that the expediency of such suggestions as I make may be better 
understood. 

I take it that the events of war, and especially of the last campaign 
of this army, have developed the fact that in a large majority of cases, 
where armies are opposed, spades, properly played, to use the expressive 
phrase, "are trumps;" and especially in a country where they can 
readily be made use of in the soil, as is the case in all of our Southern 
States, except, perhaps, some small portions of mountain tracks, where 
the war has not been vigorously pushed. 

This being the fact, I can scarcely conceive a case where a moving 
army or column, properly guarded by scouts or skirmishers in the front, 
cannot have assured to it always from a half to two or three hours' no- 
tice of the approach of a superior enemy, and therefore, for that length 
of time at least, the opi)ortunity to burj- or intrench itself in the earth 
to meet and resist such a force, if every man, or every second man 
even, should be provided with one of those picket shovels as a habitual 
part of his equipment. 

The result of such protection against attack, I would say, needs no 
discussion with any one who doubts that the strength of the party 
using the spades will be at least doubled. In fact, each man carries 
his defense and protection upon his person, for there really is combined 
in the implement of 28 ounces' weight nearly all that was relied upon 
in the ancient shield, or the mailed armor of later ages, with whatever 
is gained by the modern field works. 

If I am correct in this, may we not look upon this picket shovel as a 
new implement of warfare for the equii^ment of all infantry troops for 



646 



INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1876, 



field service, if, indeed, it would not be found to be often very useful 
for artillery service, and, indeed, for cavalry, even, in cases where they 
may be surprised and obliged to dismount and defend themselves. And 
with such uses or necessities, I can have no hesitation in recommending 
that this implement be provided for all the armies of the United States, 
and that it be issued to the troops in the field, and as regularly as the 
musket, and in such proportion thah at least every second man shall be 
supplied with it. For, b^^ working rapidly, by alternate reliefs in case 
of surprise, such number may suffice for all the troops. 

The cost of these shovels, of the best quality of steel with welded 
straps, being but about $1 each, I may add that even if renewed everj^ 
three or four months, thej' would not add to the expense of troops more 
than the amount of one cent a day. 

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

H. W. BENHAM, 

Brigadier- General. 




'/- 


t'fc" 


4 


/v 


'^ 




. ^ 


i- 


«1l 


* — 1 



THE ENGINEER SECTION. 64/ 

JDescription of picket-shovel. 

' (Weight, 28 ounces.) 

This shovel is essentially of the post-hole scoop shape. It has a ta- 
pered, reverse carv^e handle of white-ash or hickor}^, 2 feet long, and a 
hollowed and pointed blade of steel plate ^ inch thick. Blade, 8.^ inches 
long by 6J broad ichen hent ; two steel straps, welded (or riveted) to 
the blade, unite the blade and handle by three rivets; upper strap, 11 
inches long; lower strap, 6 inches; sides of blade may he turned for 
stiffness at nearly a right angle; but this bent edge narrows in width 
from I to ^ inch at 5J inches from the head, from which the edge of the 
blade is curved in a sort of Gothic arch outline to a i)oint, 8J inches from 
the handle. 

A plain staff handle, J inch diameter at end, IJ inches at upper rivet, 
and flattened to 1 inch or less at entrance to blade, between the straps. 
It is readily carried in a " frog" at the waist, the blade above resting 
in the hollow of the back or side. 



